Article contents
The decline and fall of an early modern slum: London's St Giles ‘Rookery’, c. 1550–1850
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 19 March 2021
Abstract
The Rookery of London's St Giles-in-the-Fields became the city's most notorious slum by the eighteenth century. This article asks why? Why there, why then and why for so long? Building on existing research about urban development and the failure of local government, by considering the geography, economics and legal influences acting upon the space and the people who interacted with it over the long durée, it becomes clear that the Rookery of St Giles-in-the-Fields was always high risk because of happenstance of geography, but that a lack of leadership from its owners and a system of urban upkeep that distributed responsibility too widely led to its longevity and the depth of its misfortune.
- Type
- Research Article
- Information
- Copyright
- Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press.
Footnotes
The author would like to thank the ‘British History in the Long Eighteenth Century’ seminar at the Institute of Historical Research, Louise Falcini, Katrina Navickas, Sarah Lloyd, Esther Brot, Tim Hitchcock, Joe Cozens, Gillian Williamson and Jim Clifford who commented on drafts or provided resources.
References
1 Central Saint Giles, www.centralsaintgiles.com/, accessed Jun. 2020.
2 ‘Rookery’ was first applied in the 1790s, and ‘slum’ is a nineteenth-century word derived from ‘slumber’. Contemporaries had no word to describe such an area, but as Alan Mayne has shown, the term became part of a genre of description often reliant upon animalistic tropes. I use both terms freely throughout this article despite their anachronistic nature. Mayne, A., The Imagined Slum (Leicester, 1993), 127–8Google Scholar.
3 Dobie, R., The History of the United Parishes of St Giles in the Fields and St George Bloomsbury (London, 1829)Google Scholar; Beames, T., The Rookeries of London (London, 1850)Google Scholar; Clinch, G., Bloomsbury and St Giles's (London, 1890)Google Scholar; Lees, L.H., Exiles of Erin (Ithaca, 1979)Google Scholar; Turton, J., 'Mayhew's Irish: the Irish poor in mid-nineteenth century London', in Swift, R. and Gilley, S. (eds.), The Irish in Victorian Britain (Dublin, 1999), 122–55Google Scholar.
4 Shoemaker, R., Prosecution and Punishment (Cambridge, 1991), 289–310Google Scholar.
5 Green, D. and Parton, A., ‘Slums and slum life in Victorian England’, in Gaskell, S.M. (ed.), Slums (Leicester, 1990), 17–91Google Scholar.
6 Dyos, H.J., ‘The slums of Victorian London’, Victorian Studies, 11 (1967), 24Google Scholar.
7 Olsen, D.J., Town Planning in London (London, 1982)Google Scholar.
8 Mayne, The Imagined Slum.
9 Lees, Exiles, 56–7; Turton, ‘Mayhew's Irish’, 130; Clark, P., ‘Migrants in the city: the process of social adaptation in English towns 1500–1800’, in Clark, P. and Souden, D. (eds.), Migration and Society in Early Modern England (New Jersey, 1987), 274–5Google Scholar; Lowe, W.J., The Irish in Mid-Victorian Lancashire (New York, 1989); G. Davis, The Irish in Britain 1815–1914 (Dublin, 1991)Google Scholar; Harris, R.A. Mellish, The Nearest Place that Wasn't Ireland (Iowa, 1994)Google Scholar; Busteed, M.A. and Hodgson, R.I., ‘Irish migrant responses to urban life in early nineteenth-century Manchester’, Geographical Journal, 162 (1996), 139–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar; MacRaild, D., The Irish Diaspora in Britain (London, 1999)Google Scholar.
10 Eden, F., Report on the State of the Poor (London, 1797)Google Scholar; British Parliamentary Papers (BPP), Report from the Select Committee on the State of Mendicity in the Metropolis, 1816, (396); BPP, Report from the Select Committee on the Education of the Lower Orders in the Metropolis, 1816 (427), 1–12.
11 H. Fielding ‘Crimes and offences (1749)’, quoted in Beames, The Rookeries, 24.
12 H. Mayhew, London Labour and the London Poor, vol. I (London, 1861), 114.
13 Mayne, The Imagined Slum.
14 Dobie, The United Parishes; George, M.D., London Life in the Eighteenth Century, 3rd edn (London, 1976)Google Scholar; Hitchcock, T. and Shoemaker, R., London Lives (Cambridge, 2015)Google Scholar.
15 Cooper, C.P., Papers Respecting the Sanitary State of Church Lane and Carrier Street in the Parish of St Giles in the Fields, London (London, 1850)Google Scholar; Dyos, ‘The slums’, 5–40; Green and Parton, ‘Slums and slum life’; Tyack, G., ‘James Pennethorne and London street improvements, 1838–1855’, The London Journal, 15 (1990), 38–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wise, S., The Blackest Streets (London, 2009)Google Scholar; T. Hitchcock, ‘The body in the workhouse: death, burial, and belonging in eighteenth-century St Giles-in-the-Fields’, in M.J. Barddick and J. Innes (eds.), Suffering and Happiness in England 1550–1850 (Oxford, 2017); Hitchcock and Shoemaker, London Lives, 84.
16 W.E. Riley and L. Gomme, Survey of London, vols. III and V (London, 1912 and 1914).
17 Olsen, Town Planning.
18 Kemp, P., ‘Housing landlordism in nineteenth-century Britain’, Environment and Planning A, 14 (1982), 1437–47Google Scholar; Clarke, L., Building Capitalism (London, 1992)Google Scholar; E. McKellar, The Birth of Modern London (Manchester, 1999); Baer, W.B.C., ‘The institution of residential investment in seventeenth-century London’, Business History Review, 76 (2002), 515–51Google Scholar; Guillery, P., The Small House in Eighteenth-Century London (London, 2004)Google Scholar; Anthony, S., Medieval Settlement to 18th- /19th-century Rookery (London, 2011)Google Scholar.
19 R. Ashton and D. Colville, UCL Bloomsbury Project (2007–11): www.ucl.ac.uk/bloomsbury-project/index.htm, accessed Jun. 2020.
20 Mayne, A., ‘Representing the slum’, Urban History Yearbook, 17 (1990), 66–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mayne, The Imagined Slum.
21 Mayne, ‘Representing the slum’, 66–84.
22 Dyos, ‘The slums’, 12.
23 Hogarth, W., Gin Lane (London, 1751)Google Scholar, British Museum (BM), 1868,0822.1595.
24 Fox, C., ‘Review: the English satirical print’, Print Quarterly, 7 (1990), 463–6Google Scholar.
25 T. Rowlandson, St James's; St Giles's (London, 1791), Met Museum 17.3.888–260; I. Cruikshank, Indecency (London, 1799), Library of Congress, 2003652525; P. Egan, Tom and Jerry Masquerading it among the Cadgers in the Back Slums in the Holy Land (London, 1821), BM, 1864,0611.408.
26 L. Peltz, ‘Aestheticizing the ancestral city’, Art History, 22 (1999), 472–94; L. Nead, Victorian Babylon, 3rd edn (London, 2011).
27 R. Horwood, Plan of the Cities of London and Westminster, the Borough of Southwark and Parts Adjoining, Shewing Every House, 32 sheets (London, 1792–99).
28 Anthony, Medieval Settlement, 58.
29 F.H.W. Sheppard, Survey of London, vols. XXXIII and XXXIV (London, 1966).
30 Lambeth Palace (LP), Returns of Papists (1767), Fulham papers (FP)/Terrick 23, fols. 20–7; Riley and Gomme, Survey of London, vol. V, 112–14.
31 Riley and Gomme, Survey of London, vol. V, 150–1; Olsen, Town Planning, 39–73.
32 Olsen, Town Planning, 183–4.
33 D. Keene, P. Earle, C. Spence and J. Barnes, ‘Four shillings in the pound aid 1693/4’ (1992): www.british-history.ac.uk/no-series/london-4s-pound/1693–4, accessed Jun. 2020.
34 Charles Booth's London: Poverty Maps and Police Notebooks (London: LSE, 2016): https://booth.lse.ac.uk, accessed Jun. 2020.
35 Dobie, The United Parishes; George, London Life.
36 Dyos, ‘The slums’, 25.
37 A. Owens and N. Jeffries, ‘People and things on the move: domestic material culture, poverty and mobility in Victorian London’, International Journal of Historical Archaeology, 20 (2016), 804–27.
38 Riley and Gomme, Survey of London, vol. V, 117–26.
39 G. Vertue, after R. Agas, Civitas Londinum Ano Dni Circiter MDLX (London, 1737). Based on a map from 1560. F. de Belle Forest, La Ville de Londres Londinum Feracissimi Angliae Regni Metropolis (Paris, 1575).
40 Riley and Gomme, Survey of London, vol. V.
41 Ibid., 145–6.
42 Baer, ‘Residential investment’, 520.
43 Faithorne, William, An Exact Delineation of the Cities of London and Westminster and the Suburbs Thereof, Together Wth. Ye Burrough of Southwark (London, 1658)Google Scholar; Vertue, G., A Plan of the City and Suburbs of London as Fortified by Order of Parliament in the Years 1642 & 1643 (London, 1738)Google Scholar.
44 Anonymous, London (Amsterdam, c. 1690), in Crouch, D., Catalogue III: Mapping London (London, 2012), 35Google Scholar.
45 Riley and Gomme, Survey of London, vol. V, 127–40; ‘Minutes of the commissioners: 1714’, in M.H. Port (ed.), The Commissions for Building Fifty New Churches: The Minute Books, 1711–27, A Calendar (London, 1986), 28–39.
46 Dobie, The United Parishes, 112–13.
47 BPP, Report…on the State of Mendicity, 14; F. Neal, ‘South Wales, the coal trade and the Irish famine refugee crisis’, in P. O'Leary (ed.), Irish Migrants in Modern Wales (Liverpool, 2004), 9–33.
48 Faithorne, An Exact Delineation.
49 Beames, The Rookeries, 40.
50 London Daily Advertiser (16 Sep. 1752); The Public Advertiser (11 Dec. 1753); Forsythe, W., Breen, C., Callaghan, C. and McConkey, R., ‘Historic storms and shipwrecks in Ireland’, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 29 (2000), 247–59Google Scholar; Turton, ‘Mayhew's Irish’, 128.
51 ‘Trial of Catherine Hannagan, September 1811’, Old Bailey Proceedings Online, version 8.0, www.oldbaileyonline.org/browse.jsp?div=t18110918–179, accessed Jun. 2020.
52 ‘A new guide to stage coaches, waggons, caravans, carts, vessels, hoys, barges, and boats’, in Kelly's Post Office London Directory (London, 1814).
53 Dobie, The United Parishes, 112–13.
54 Road quality and connectedness is widely studied in relation to migration. Jiang, B., ‘Ranking spaces for predicting human movement in an urban environment’, Journal of Geographical Information Science, 23 (2009), 823–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Dorosh, P., Wang, H.G., You, L. and Schmidt, E., ‘Road connectivity, population, and crop production in Sub Saharan Africa’, Agricultural Economics, 43 (2012), 89–103Google Scholar.
55 Landers, J., Death and the Metropolis Studies in the Demographic History of London 1670–1830 (Cambridge, 1993), 306Google Scholar.
56 T. Hitchcock, ‘The publicity of poverty in early modern London’, in J.F. Merritt (ed.), Imagining Early Modern London (Cambridge, 2001), 166–84; J. Boulton, ‘Neighbourhood migration in early modern London’, in Clark and Souden (eds.), Migration and Society, 107–49.
57 Green and Parton, ‘Slums and slum life’, 74–9.
58 Cited in ibid., 76.
59 Riley and Gomme, Survey of London, vol. III; Olsen, Town Planning.
60 Clarke, Building Capitalism, 264–5.
61 Riley and Gomme, Survey of London, vol. V, 112–14, 150–1.
62 Ibid., 145–6; J.P. Carey, ‘Blount, Charles, Fifth Baron Mountjoy (1516–1544)’, in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (2008).
63 For the Bainbridge family's history on the site, see Riley and Gomme, Survey of London, vol. V, 145–6; Hollar, W., Plan of the West Central District of London (London, 1660)Google Scholar; Anonymous, London; London Metropolitan Archives (LMA), Dyot Family (1676–1815?), ACC/1852/004, 1–7; 55 Geo III c. 138.
64 Baer, ‘Residential investment’, 520.
65 Clarke, Building Capitalism, 264–5; Baer, ‘Residential investment’.
66 Olsen, Town Planning, 39–73.
67 LMA, ‘Licensed victuallers register’, Middlesex Sessions Papers (1727–30), MR/LV/05/31 and 37.
68 See Illustrated London News, 6 Nov. 1858, as well as Figure 2.
69 Olsen, Town Planning, 101.
70 LMA, Dyot Family, ACC/1852/004; 55 Geo III c. 138.
71 55 Geo III c. 138.
72 Calculated from descriptions in Beames, The Rookeries, 30–43.
73 The Olla Podrida, 29 (Sep. 1787), 172.
74 Miles's Boy, ‘A ramble in the Rookery’, The Sportsman Magazine, 19 Apr. 1845.
75 Keene, Earle, Spence and Barnes, ‘Four shillings in the pound’.
76 The Olla Podrida, 29 (Sep. 1787), 171–2. For an example of a piecemeal landlady, see Ann Dunn, 1804: LMA, Royal and Sun Alliance Insurance Group (1788–93), CLC/B/192/F/001/MS11936/431/760514.
77 55 Geo III c. 138.
78 Green and Parton, ‘Slums and slum life’, 68.
79 Dyos, ‘The slums’, 34.
80 Cooper, Papers Respecting the Sanitary State, 13.
81 John Vernon, a black victim of highway robbery and out of place servant in 1774, claimed residence in Church Lane, within the Rookery. ‘Trial of Ambrose Cantwell, February 1774’, Old Bailey Proceedings Online version 8.0, www.oldbaileyonline.org/browse.jsp?div=t17740216–48, accessed Jun. 2020.
82 LMA, Royal and Sun Alliance Insurance Group (1788–93), CLC/B/192/F/001/MS11936 (352/544589) and (392/612879).
83 Anthony, Medieval Settlement, 19–20.
84 The Olla Podrida, 29 (Sep. 1787), 171.
85 J. Styles, ‘Lodging at the Old Bailey: lodgings and their furnishings in eighteenth-century London’, in J. Styles and A. Vickery (eds.), Gender, Taste, and Material Culture in Britain and North America, 1700–1830 (London, 2006), 61–80.
86 H. Metcalfe, ‘To let or for lease: “small, but genteel” lodgings for bachelors in and about the late Georgian town’, Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies (early online view 2020).
87 Beames, The Rookeries, 35.
88 British Library, Landsdowne MS 509a–b; Beames, The Rookeries, 12.
89 R. Porter, ‘Cleaning up the great wen: public health in eighteenth-century London’, Medical History, 35, s11 (1991); Hitchcock, ‘The body in the workhouse’.
90 The timber yard and one brewery appear in Faden, W. Fourth Edition of Horwood's Plan (London, 1819)Google Scholar. The second brewery is shown in the family's papers: LMA, Dyot Family, ‘Original plan of the Dyot estate’ (n.d. 17xx?), ACC/1852/06.
91 Their site on Crucifix Lane in south London showed residential properties and industrial premises in close quarters: Faden, Fourth Edition; The National Archives (TNA), ‘The will of Philip Dyot’, 1792, PROB/11/1223/242.
92 The Morning Post (19 Oct. 1814); M. Ingleby, ‘Brewing trouble: Bloomsbury and booze’, in UCL Bloomsbury Project (London, 2012).
93 Cooper, Papers Respecting the Sanitary State, 16.
94 LMA, Dyot Family (1851–52), ACC/1852/006–008.
95 LMA, Dyot Family (17xx?–1851), AC/1852/006–009; Anthony, Medieval Settlement, xi.
96 The London Statistical Society calculated that the inhabitants of Church Lane had between 52 and 175 cubic feet of space, on average, in 1847. This was far less than the 1,000 cubic feet required for prisoners. Beames, The Rookeries, 32–43. The space for enslaved passengers on transatlantic ships was governed by 28 Geo. III c. 54.
97 More, H., Betty Brown, the St. Giles's Orange Girl (London, 1797)Google Scholar.
98 Egan, Tom and Jerry; Miles's Boy, ‘A ramble in the Rookery’, 49–51.
99 The East London parish of St Dunstan's Stepney estimated half of Catholics evaded the census taker. LP, Returns of Papists (1767), FP/Terrick 23, fols. 7–181. At the time of the 1767 census, 2,208 Catholics were counted in St Giles, much higher than values elsewhere in London.
100 LMA, Registrations of Catholic Property (1717–64), MR/R/RE/013–022.
101 LMA, Certificates of Roman Catholic Chapels, Priests, Schoolmasters and Schoolmisteresses (1802), MR/R/H/001/33a.
102 Westminster Diocesan Archive (WDA), Diocese of Westminster – Soho Square, St Patrick – Correspondence, AWW/DOW/PAR/179/5/3; WDA, St Patrick Charity School (1803–14), HZ.
103 LP, Returns of Papists (1767), FP/Terrick 23, fols. 20–7.
104 Anthony, Medieval Settlement, 58.
105 Olsen, Town Planning, 193.
106 LMA, Dyot Family (1692–1780), ACC/1851/004.
107 55 Geo III c. 138.
108 LMA, Dyot Family (1692), ACC/1852/002; LMA, Dyot Family (18xx?), ACC/1852/004; TNA, ‘The will of Richard Dyot’, 1720, PROB/11/575/171; TNA, ‘The will of Arabella Dyot’, 1739, PROB/11/701/70.
109 ‘The will of Philip Dyot’.
110 TNA, State Papers, Domestic, Anne, ‘Petition to the queen from Richard Dyot’, 1711, SP 34/31/52B; Evening Post (3 Oct. 1710); J. Swift, ‘Journal to Stella, letter v. September 30–October 10, 1710’, in T. Sheridan (ed.), The Works of the Rev. Jonathan Swift, D.D. Dean of St. Patrick's Dublin, vol. XIV (London, 1808), 242.
111 ‘The will of Richard Dyot’; ‘The will of Arabella Dyot’; ‘The will of Philip Dyot’; LMA, Dyot Family (18xx?), ACC/1852/004.
112 Hitchcock, T., Crymble, A. and Falcini, L., ‘Loose, idle, and disorderly: vagrant removal in late eighteenth-century Middlesex’, Social History, 39 (2014), 516CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
113 LMA, Dyot Family (18xx?), ACC/1852/004; Crymble, A., Falcini, L. and Hitchcock, T., ‘Vagrant lives: 14,780 vagrants processed by Middlesex county, 1777–1786’, Journal of Open Humanities Data, 1 (2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
114 17 Geo II c. 5.
115 Crymble, Falcini and Hitchcock, ‘Vagrant lives’.
116 Olsen, Town Planning, 99–107.
117 TNA, ‘The will of Thomas Skip Dyot Bucknall’ (1804), PROB/11/1411/164.
118 LMA, Dyot Family (18xx?), ACC/1852/004.
119 55 Geo III c. 138.
120 19 Car II c. 8; 22 Cha II c. 11; 12 Geo III c. 73; 14 Geo III c. 78.
121 Hitchcock, ‘The body in the workhouse’.
122 Middlesex Sessions, General Orders of the Court, 10 May 1744: www.londonlives.org/browse.jsp?id=LMSMGO55602_n231–64&div=LMSMGO55602GO556020065, accessed Jun. 2020.
123 Bridewell Royal Hospital: Minutes of the Court of Governors, 29 Apr. 1748: www.londonlives.org/browse.jsp?id=BBBRMG20206_n3669–4&div=BBBRMG20206MG202060393, accessed Jun. 2020.
124 TNA, Court of Chancery: ‘Dyot v Higginson’ (1650), C/6/109/59; ‘Dumcomb v Dyot’ (1694), C/7/101/51; ‘Dyot v Stanhope’ (1727), C/11/2418/4; ‘Dyot v Sword’ (1743), C/11/2743/28; ‘Maxwell v Dyot’ (1743), C/11/155/14; ‘Bucknall v Lord Grimston’ (1804–10), C/101/3696.
125 Riley and Gomme, Survey of London, vol. V, 127–40; T. Cooper and P. Carter, ‘Gally, Henry (bap. 1696, d. 1769)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (2008); Gally, H., Some Considerations upon Clandestine Marriages (London, 1750)Google Scholar.
126 George, London Life, 121.
- 1
- Cited by