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⁵⁴ Johnstone, The Shanghai Problem, 24.

⁵⁵ The fourteenth article of the old code of the Land Regulations stressed the key role played by the British consul in regard to the ground or the house administration in the British Settlement. See Jarman, R.L. (ed.), Shanghai Political and Economic Reports, 1842–1943: British Government Records from the International City, vol. I (Slough, 2008), 639–709Google Scholar.

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⁶² In order to maintain public order in the Settlement, the British authorities reinforced the police force. By September 1854, 29 British soldiers led by Samuel Clifton were recruited from Hong Kong to Shanghai. See Bickers, The Scramble for China, 127.

⁶³ Jarman (ed.), Shanghai Political and Economic Reports, 1842–1943, vol. III, 538.

⁶⁴ After the 1854 Land Regulations had been approved, on a motion of the American consul, an annual meeting of ratepayers was to be the means of raising revenue and electing a municipal council consisting of a chairman and six members. See Johnstone, The Shanghai Problem, 25–8. Nevertheless, in contrast to the British Settlement, as a result of the friction between the Anglo-American and French authorities as to the unified municipal government in the Settlement and the Concession in the Taiping period, an independent municipal administration was established by the French authorities in the Concession of 1862. After the municipal crises in 1865 and 1866, a power-centralized municipal administration dominated by the French consul was finally confirmed in the Concession. See Maybon and Fredet, Histoire de la Concession française de Changhaï, 258–331.

⁶⁵ Jarman (ed.), Shanghai Political and Economic Reports, 1842–1943, vol. III, 541.

⁶⁶ Xi, D., ‘Xiao Dao Hui yu Taiping Tian Guo shiqi de Shanghai waijiao’ (The Small Swords Society and the diplomacy in Shanghai during the Taiping period), Shanghai tong zhi guan qikan (Journal of Shanghai General Annals House), 1 (1933), 123–46Google Scholar.

⁶⁷ In the first period of conflict, there were few security forces in the French Concession, which was only protected by the French warship Cassini. See Mercier, R.P., Campagne du ‘Cassini’ dans les mers de Chine 1851–1854: D'après les rapports, lettres et notes du Commandant de Plas (Paris, 1889), 361Google Scholar.

⁶⁸ At that time, the Chinese City was closely guarded from all sides by the Imperial troops, except the side where the British Settlement lay, and the rebels were also attacked from the Suzhou Creek. The headquarters of the Imperial troops were at the Red Joss house above the stone bridge on the Suzhou Creek. A line of strong earthworks and fortified camps extended from Dongjiadu on the south side of the Chinese City, and parallel with its walls, to the Ningbo Joss house on the north-west, where there was a formidable mud fort, and thence, crossing the Defence Creek, continued on its western bank along the edge of the later race course. See North-China Herald Office (ed.), The Battle of ‘Muddy Flat’, 1854 (Shanghai, 1904), 2Google Scholar; Maybon and Fredet, Histoire de la Concession française de Changhaï, 88.

⁶⁹ Maybon and Fredet, Histoire de la Concession française de Changhaï, 88–9.

⁷⁰ North-China Herald Office (ed.), The Battle of ‘Muddy Flat’, 1854, 3.

⁷¹ In Maclellan's The Story of Shanghai, it is stated that this battle lasted only two hours. See Maclellan, J.W., The Story of Shanghai: From the Opening of the Port to Foreign Trade (Shanghai, 1889), 42Google Scholar. However, as a witness of this battle, an American volunteer, Wetmore, corrected Maclellan's version. He argued that ‘it really occupied more than twenty-four hours, having commenced on the afternoon of the 3rd, and terminated on the evening of the 4th of April, 1854’. See Wetmore, W.S., Recollections of Life in the Far East (Shanghai, 1894), 1Google Scholar.

⁷² Before the twentieth century, there was no large-scale sino-foreign conflict in Shanghai because of differences in race and culture. There were, admittedly, some clashes between Chinese and foreigners in Shanghai during the nineteenth century, but these were a result of real clashes of interest. The Qingpu Incident of 1848, which involved Cantonese and Fukienese sailors and boatmen resident in Shanghai, was regarded as the first clash between Chinese and foreigners. ‘The Battle of Muddy Flat’ of 1854 was the first purely military clash between Imperial and foreign troops in Shanghai. See Ye, X., ‘Shanghai before nationalism’, East Asian History, 3 (1992), 33–52Google Scholar.

⁷³ The official correspondence respecting the attack by the Imperial troops on the British Settlement at Shanghai was presented to both houses of the British parliament. The approval of the British government was conveyed to Alcock on 22 Aug. 1854. See North-China Herald Office (ed.), The Battle of ‘Muddy Flat’, 1854, 11.

⁷⁴ Maclellan, The Story of Shanghai, 42–3.

⁷⁵ Maybon and Fredet, Histoire de la Concession française de Changhaï, 110.

⁷⁶ Scarth, Twelve Years in China, 197.

⁷⁷ Maybon and Fredet, Histoire de la Concession française de Changhaï, 102–3.

⁷⁸ De Jesus, Historic Shanghai, 75–6.

⁷⁹ Ibid., 77.

⁸⁰ Maybon and Fredet, Histoire de la Concession française de Changhaï, 104.

⁸¹ Minutes of Shanghai Municipal Council, vol. I, Dec. 1854.

⁸² In his note to Edan of 26 July 1854, Bourboulon, the French minister in China, expressed his negative opinion regarding the neutrality declaration made by the Anglo-American authorities. According to him, as the Three Treaty Powers had signed the treaties with the Imperial authorities, any contacts with the rebels would damage their diplomatic relations with China. Especially after the arrival of the British admiral, Sir James Stirling, at Shanghai, the French authorities publicly supported the Imperial troops in order to oppose the British authorities. See Maybon and Fredet, Histoire de la Concession française de Changhaï, 107.

⁸³ Servière, J.D.L., Histoire de la mission du Kiang-Nan, 1840–1899, vol. I (Chang-hai, 1914), 285Google Scholar. The recent biography of Admiral Charles Jaurès has delineated his activities in the Seas of China during the Taiping period. See Alba, J.-B., Amiral Charles Jaurès, homme de courage et de cœur (Paris, 2017)Google Scholar.

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⁸⁵ De Jesus, Historic Shanghai, 76.

⁸⁶ Recent research concerning the global context of the Crimean War showed that although Great Britain was allied with France against Russia globally from the outbreak of the Crimean War, the military plans of the two countries at that time in Chinese waters were quite diverse. Laguerre preferred to concentrate his scattered forces in order to defend the French Concession in Shanghai, as he assumed Russian warships were nearby, while Stirling, on the other hand, confidentially reported to Sir James Graham that the Crimean War was an attractive opportunity to approach an isolationist Tokugawa Japan. Consequently, instead of deferring to the British plenipotentiary in China, Sir John Bowring, Stirling ordered his squadron to set sail from Chinese waters to Japanese ports for the purpose of persuading the Japanese authorities to prohibit Russian warships from accessing Japanese ports, but instead obtained a full-fledged diplomatic convention ‘opening’ Nagasaki and Hakodate to British Royal Navy warships. See A.C. Rath, ‘The global dimensions of Britain and France's Crimean War naval campaigns against Russia, 1854–1856’, McGill University MA thesis, 2011, 98.

⁸⁷ Fujian Shanghai xiao dao hui dangan shiliao huibian (Collections of the Historical Archives of the Small Swords Society of Fujian and Shanghai) (Fuzhou, 1993), 402–4.

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⁹¹ Maclellan, The Story of Shanghai, 43.

⁹² Ibid., 44.

⁹³ Ibid., 43; Alcock was in favour of the view of Laguerre, but the British naval authorities refused to grant military support to the Imperial troops. See Servière, Histoire de la mission du Kiang-Nan, 1840–1899, 287.

⁹⁴ Ibid., 287.

⁹⁵ Many French sailors and marines from La Jeanne d'Arc and Le Colbert were seriously injured in the fight. The French consulate served as the ambulance station and the residence of M. Remi was adapted for use as a temporary hospital. See Millac, Les Français à Changhaï en 1853–1855, 40.

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¹¹⁴ Ibid.

¹¹⁵ Xi, ‘Xiao Dao Hui yu Taiping Tian Guo shiqi de Shanghai waijiao’.

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¹¹⁹ After five years of appointment as governor of Senegal (1850–55), Auguste Léopold Protet was promoted to the rank of rear admiral. He subsequently joined the expedition against the Taiping troops, who threatened an attack upon Shanghai, and he was killed during the engagement at Nan Qiao in suburban Shanghai on the afternoon of 17 May 1862. See The American Annual Cyclopaedia and Register of Important Events of the Year 1862, vol. II (New York, 1863), 688.

¹²⁰ Admiral Hope, Colonel Moody and Major Webb signed this agreement on behalf of Great Britain; reciprocally, the French representatives were Admiral Protet, Colonel Théologue, Edan and P. Giquel. See AMAEC, Correspondance politique des Consuls/Chine/Shanghai, 1848–95, 10624.

¹²¹ Maybon and Fredet, Histoire de la Concession française de Changhaï, 209.

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¹²⁹ The first American merchants in Shanghai lived in the British Settlement, as the increase of the American population led to the formation of an American community around the American church in today's Hongkou district. The American authorities first requested their own settlement in 1849, but its boundaries were finally defined on 25 June 1863: land fronting the Huangpu River to the north-east of Suzhou Creek. Although the French authorities dropped out of the unified municipal government, the American Settlement officially amalgamated with the British Settlement. See S. Kuai, ‘Shanghai gonggong zujie de faduan – ying mei zujie de chuangshe’ (The origins of the International Settlement of Shanghai – the establishment of the Anglo-American Settlements), Shanghai tong zhi guan qikan (Journal of Shanghai General Annals House), 1 (1933), 45–73.

¹³⁰ According to the demographic statistics made by the French authorities in 1865, there were 460 residents in the French Concession, of whom 372 were male, 88 female, including Chinese, French, British, American, German, Turkish, Dutch, Belgian, Austrian, Portuguese and Greek. See AMAEN, 635 PO/B31, Conseil municipal (procès-verbaux) 1855–67, 1867–68.

¹³¹ Maybon and Fredet, Histoire de la Concession française de Changhaï, 248.

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¹³⁵ Cranston, ‘Shanghai in the Taiping period’.