¹ Barrett, S., Why Cooperate? The Incentive to Supply Global Public Goods (Oxford University Press, 2007), at pp. 84–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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³ Snidal, D., ‘The Limits of Hegemonic Stability Theory’ (1985) 39 International Organization, pp. 579–614Google Scholar; Young, O.R., ‘Political Leadership and Regime Formation: On the Development of Institutions in International Society’ (1991) 45(3) International Organization, pp. 281–308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴ Copenhagen Accord, Decision 2/CP.15, FCCC/CP/2009/11/Add.1, 30 Mar. 2010, available at: http://unfccc.int/meetings/copenhagen_dec_2009/session/6262/php/view/decisions.php.

⁵ ‘The Cancun Agreements: Outcome of the Work of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-Term Cooperative Action under the Convention’, Decision 1/CP.16, FCCC/CP/2010/7/Add. 1, 15 Mar. 2011, available at: http://unfccc.int/meetings/cancun_nov_2010/items/6005.php.

⁶ M.G.J. den Elzen et al., ‘Evaluation of the Copenhagen Accord: Chances and Risks for the 2°C Climate Goal’, May 2010, available at: http://www.rivm.nl/bibliotheek/rapporten/500114018.pdf; V. Duscha et al., ‘Post-2012 Climate Regime: How Industrial and Developing Nations Can Help to Reduce Emissions – Assessing Emission Trends, Reduction Potentials, Incentive Systems and Negotiation Options’, Feb. 2010, available at: http://www.umweltbundesamt.de/uba-info-medien-e/3954.html; UNEP, ‘Bridging the Emissions Gap’, 2011, available at: http://www.unep.org/publications/contents/pub_details_search.asp?ID=6227.

⁷ ‘Establishment of an Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action’, Decision 1/CP.17, FCCC/CP/2011/9/Add. 1, 15 Mar. 2012, available at: http://unfccc.int/bodies/body/6645.php.

⁸ D. Bodansky, ‘The Durban Platform: Issues and Options for a 2015 Agreement’, Dec. 2012, available at: http://www.c2es.org/publications?topic=2531.

⁹ J. Boyle, ‘A Mirage in the Deserts of Doha? Assessing the Outcomes of COP 18’, International Institute for Sustainable Development, 2012, available at: http://www.iisd.org/publications/pub.aspx?id51728; J. Morgan, ‘Reflections on COP 18 in Doha: Negotiators Made Only Incremental Progress’, World Resources Institute, 14 Dec. 2012, available at: http://insights.wri.org; UN Climate Change Secretariat, UNFCCC, ‘June UN Climate Change Conference in Bonn Sees Concrete Progress Toward New Agreement and Speeding Up Climate Action’, 14 June 2013, available at: http://unfccc.int/press/press_releases_advisories/items/7365.php.

¹⁰ UNFCCC, Decision 3/CP.17, ‘Launching the Green Climate Fund’, FCCC/CP/2011/9/Add.1 (2011).

¹¹ UNFCCC, Decision 1/CP.16, ‘The Cancun Agreements: Outcome of the Work of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention’, Section IV.B (2010).

¹² Hardin, Russell, Collective Action (Johns Hopkins Press, 1982).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹³ Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Kyoto (Japan), 11 Dec. 1997, in force 16 Feb. 2005, available at: http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php.

¹⁴ Boyle, n. 9 above; Morgan, n. 9 above.

¹⁵ New York, NY (US), 9 May 1992, in force 21 Mar. 1994, available at: http://unfccc.int.

¹⁶ United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, ‘Outcome of the Conference: The Future We Want’, A/CONF.216/L.1, June 2012, at p. 19. See also A. Powers, ‘The Rio+20 Process: Forward Movement for the Environment?’ (2012) 1(2) Transnational Environmental Law, pp. 403–12.

¹⁷ See ‘The Future We Want’, ibid., e.g., paras 190–2 on climate.

¹⁸ F. Dodds & A. Nayar, ‘Rio+20: A New Beginning’, UNEP Perspectives No. 8, Dec. 2012, available at: http://www.unep.org/civil-society/Portals/24105/documents/perspectives/ENVIRONMENT_PAPERS_DISCUSSION_8.pdf; UNEP, ‘United Nations Environment Programme Upgraded to Universal Membership Following Rio+20 Summit’, 21 Dec. 2012, available at: http://www.unep.org/newscentre/Default.aspx?DocumentID=2700&ArticleID=9363&l=en.

¹⁹ ‘Format and Organizational Aspects of the High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development’, UNGA Res. A/67/L.72, 27 June 2013.

²⁰ See UN Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform, ‘Post-2015 Process’, available at: http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?menu=1561.

²¹ Abbott, K.W., ‘The Transnational Regime Complex for Climate Change’ (2012) 30 Government and Policy: Environment and Planning C, pp. 571–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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²⁴ Abbott, K.W., ‘Engaging the Public and the Private in Global Sustainability Governance’ (2012) 88(3) International Affairs, pp. 543–64.Google Scholar

²⁵ Keck, M.E. & Sikkink, K., Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics (Cornell University Press, 1998).Google Scholar

²⁶ Abbott, K.W. & Snidal, D., ‘Strengthening International Regulation through Transnational New Governance: Overcoming the Orchestration Deficit’ (2009) 42 Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law, pp. 501–78.Google Scholar

²⁷ Falkner, R., Global Governance – The Rise of Non-State Actors (European Environment Agency, 2011)Google Scholar, available at: http://personal.lse.ac.uk/Falkner/_private/2011_EEAreport_GlobalGovernance.pdf.

²⁸ Biermann, F. & Pattberg, P., ‘Global Environmental Governance: Taking Stock, Moving Forward’ (2008) 33 Annual Review of Environmental Resources, pp. 277–94Google Scholar; K. Raustiala & N.L. Bridgeman, ‘Nonstate Actors in the Global Climate Regime’, Nov. 2007, available at: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1028603; E. Dannenmaier, ‘The Role of Non-state Actors in Climate Compliance’, in J. Brunée et al. (eds), Promoting Compliance in an Evolving Climate Regime (Cambridge University Press, 2012), pp. 149–76; T. Hale & C. Roger, ‘Orchestration and Transnational Climate Governance’ (2013 forthcoming) Review of International Organizations.

²⁹ Betsill, M.M. & Bulkeley, H., ‘Cities and the Multilevel Governance of Global Climate Change’ (2006) 12(2) Global Governance, pp. 141–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Osofsky, H.M., ‘Multiscalar Governance and Climate Change: Reflections on the Role of States and Cities at Copenhagen’ (2010) 25 Maryland Journal of International Law, pp. 64–85.Google Scholar

³⁰ Abbott & Snidal, n. 26 above.

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³⁴ Bernstein, S., Betsill, M.M., Hoffmann, M.J. & Paterson, M., ‘A Tale of Two Copenhagens: Carbon Markets and Climate Governance’ (2010) 39 Millennium – Journal of International Studies, pp. 161–73.Google Scholar

³⁵ Abbott, n. 21 above; Cole, D.H., ‘From Global to Polycentric Climate Governance’ (2011) 2 Climate Law, pp. 395–413Google Scholar; Ostrom, E., ‘Polycentric Systems for Coping with Collective Action and Global Environmental Change’ (2010) 20(4) Global Environmental Change, pp. 550–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁴⁰ Cole, n. 35 above; Orts, E., ‘Climate Contracts’ (2011) 29 Virginia Environmental Law Journal, pp. 197–236Google Scholar; Peel, J., Godden, L. & Keenan, R.J., ‘Climate Change Law in an Era of Multi-Level Governance’ (2012) 1(2) Transnational Environmental Law, pp. 245–80Google Scholar; Hale, T. & Held, D., ‘Gridlock and Innovation in Global Governance: The Partial Transnational Solution’ (2012) 3(2) Global Policy, pp. 169–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴¹ van Asselt, H. & Zelli, F., ‘Connect the Dots: Managing the Fragmentation of Global Climate Governance’ (2013 forthcoming) Environmental Economics and Policy Studies.Google Scholar

⁴² Stewart, R.B., Oppenheimer, M. & Rudyk, B., ‘Reaching International Cooperation on Climate Change Mitigation: Building a More Effective Global Climate Regime Through a Bottom-Up Approach’ (2013) 14(1) Theoretical Inquiries in Law, pp. 273–306Google Scholar. See also Stewart, R.B., Oppenheimer, M. & Rudyk, B., ‘A New Strategy for Global Climate Protection’ (2013) 120(1–2) Climatic Change, pp. 1–12.Google Scholar

⁴³ Krasner, S.D., ‘Structural Causes and Regime Consequences: Regimes as Intervening Variables’, in Krasner, S.D. (ed), International Regimes (Cornell University Press, 1983), pp. 1–22.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Raustiala, K. & Victor, D., ‘The Regime Complex for Plant Genetic Resources’ (2004) 58(2) International Organization, pp. 277–309CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Alter, K. & Meunier, S., ‘The Politics of International Regime Complexity’ (2009) 7 Perspectives on Politics, pp. 13–24Google Scholar; Keohane & Victor, n. 37 above.

⁴⁵ Abbott, n. 21 above.

⁴⁶ Montreal (Canada), 16 Sept. 1987, in force 1 Jan. 1989, available at: http://ozone.unep.org/new_site/en/montreal_protocol.php.

⁴⁷ Geneva (Switzerland), 12 Aug. 1949, in force 21 Oct. 1950, available at: http://www.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/Treaty.xsp?documentId=77CB9983BE01D004C12563CD002D6B3E&action=openDocument .

⁴⁸ Helfer, L.R., ‘Regime Shifting: The TRIPs Agreement and New Dynamics of International Intellectual Property Lawmaking’ (2004) 29 Yale Journal of International Law, pp. 1–83.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Traditional regime complex scholarship focuses heavily on such institutions.

⁵⁰ Keohane & Victor, n. 37 above.

⁵¹ Abbott, n. 21 above; Ostrom, n. 35 above.

⁵² Cf. van Asselt, Pattberg, Biermann & Zelli, n. 22 above; Zelli, F., ‘The Fragmentation of the Global Climate Governance Architecture’ (2011) 2(2) WIREs Climate Change, pp. 255–70CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Zelli, F. & van Asselt, H., ‘The Institutional Fragmentation of Global Environmental Governance: Causes, Consequences and Responses’ (2013) 13(3) Global Environmental Politics, pp. 1–13.Google Scholar

⁵³ See, e.g., Jessup, P., Transnational Law (Yale University Press, 1956)Google Scholar; Koh, H.H., ‘Transnational Legal Process’ (1996) 75 Nebraska Law Review, pp. 181–207Google Scholar; Shaffer, G., ‘Transnational Legal Process and State Change’ (2012) 37 Law & Social Inquiry, pp. 229–64Google Scholar; Shaffer, G. & Bodansky, D., ‘Transnationalism, Unilateralism and International Law’ (2012) 1(1) Transnational Environmental Law, pp. 31–41Google Scholar; Hale, T. & Held, D. (eds), Handbook of Transnational Governance: Institutions and Innovations (Polity Press, 2011)Google Scholar; Dannenmaier, E., ‘Constructing Transnational Climate Regimes’, in Handl, G., Zekoll, J. & Zumbansen, P. (eds), Beyond Territoriality: Transnational Legal Authority in an Age of Globalization (Martinus Nijhoff, 2012)Google Scholar, pp. 519–50; Zumbansen, P., ‘Transnational Legal Pluralism’ (2010) 10(2) Transnational Legal Theory, pp. 141–89CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Heyvaert, V. & Etty, T.F.M., ‘Introducing Transnational Environmental Law’ (2012) 1(1) Transnational Environmental Law, pp. 1–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵⁴ See, e.g., Risse-Kappen, T. (ed), Bringing Transnational Relations Back In: Nonstate Actors, Domestic Structures and International Institutions (Cambridge University Press, 1995)Google Scholar; Pattberg, P., Private Institutions and Global Governance (Edward Elgar, 2007)Google Scholar; Pattberg & Stripple, n. 32 above, at p. 367 n. 3; Andonova, Betsill & Bulkeley, n. 32 above; B. Eberlein et al., ‘Transnational Business Governance Interactions: Conceptualization and Framework for Analysis’ (2013 forthcoming) Regulation & Governance; Bulkeley, H. et al. ., ‘Governing Climate Change Transnationally: Assessing the Evidence from a Database of Sixty Initiatives’ (2012) 30(4) Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, pp. 591–612Google Scholar; Abbott, n. 21 above.

⁵⁵ http://www.climate-standards.org.

⁵⁶ http://www.v-c-s.org/who-we-are.

⁵⁷ http://www.iclei.org.

⁵⁸ http://www.c40cities.org.

⁵⁹ http://www.ghgprotocol.org/about-ghgp.

⁶⁰ http://rsb.org/sustainability/rsb-certification.

⁶¹ https://ic.fsc.org.

⁶² http://go.worldbank.org/Q7E8SP9J90.

⁶³ http://www.ren21.net.

⁶⁴ Another valuable ally would be a transgovernmental network on climate. A transgovernmental network is an association of government agencies, e.g., environment ministries; it is not formed by or made up of states as such: see Slaughter, A.-M., A New World Order (Princeton University Press, 2005)Google Scholar. Transgovernmental networks share information, coordinate rule-making and other domestic activities, and support weaker member agencies. They are important centres of governance in many areas. Unfortunately, national and supranational environment agencies have not created strong transgovernmental relationships on climate policy.

⁶⁵ Abbott, K.W. & Snidal, D., ‘Why States Act Through Formal International Organizations’ (1998) 42(1) Journal of Conflict Resolution, pp. 3–32.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Biermann, F. & Siebenhüner, B. (eds), Managers of Global Change: The Influence of International Environmental Bureaucracies (The MIT Press, 2009).Google Scholar

⁶⁷ http://www.oecd.org/daf/inv/mne/oecdguidelinesformultinationalenterprises.htm.

⁶⁸ http://www.unglobalcompact.org.

⁶⁹ http://caringforclimate.org.

⁷⁰ https://www.globalreporting.org/Pages/default.aspx.

⁷¹ http://www.unpri.org.

⁷² http://www.equator-principles.com.

⁷³ C. van der Lugt & K. Dingwerth, ‘Governing Where Focality Is Low: UNEP and the Principles for Responsible Investment’, in Abbott, Genschel, Snidal & Zangl, n. 23 above.

⁷⁴ UNFCCC, n. 15 above, Art. 8.

⁷⁵ See http://unfccc.int/secretariat/partneships/items/6621.php. It has also joined the Global Compact as co-convenor of Caring for Climate, discussed below at Section 5.1.

⁷⁶ Mattli, W. & Woods, N. (eds), The Politics of Global Regulation (Princeton University Press, 2009).Google Scholar

⁷⁷ The Momentum for Change programme adopts similar goals: see http://unfccc.int/secretariat/momentum_for_change/items/6214.php.

⁷⁸ Mattli & Woods, n. 76 above, at pp. 22–6.

⁷⁹ Bulkeley, H. (ed), ‘Between Public and Private? Governing Global Environmental Issues Transnationally’ (2012) 30(4) Government and Policy: Environment and Planning C, pp. 556–674.Google Scholar

⁸⁰ Bulkeley et al., n. 54 above. See also Etty, T.F.M., Heyvaert, V., Carlarne, C., Farber, D., Lin, J. & Scott, J., ‘Transnational Dimensions of Climate Governance’ (2012) 1(2) Transnational Environmental Law, pp. 235–43.Google Scholar

⁸¹ Abbott, n. 21 above.

⁸² Hoffmann, M.J., Climate Governance at the Crossroads (Oxford University Press, 2011).Google Scholar

⁸³ Hale & Roger, n. 28 above.

⁸⁴ Green, n. 33 above.

⁸⁵ http://www.globalgap.org.

⁸⁶ http://sanstandards.org/sitio.

⁸⁷ K.W. Abbott & D. Snidal, ‘The Governance Triangle: Regulatory Standards Institutions and the Shadow of the State’, in Mattli & Woods, n. 76 above, pp. 44–88. Some sub-state government associations, such as the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI), promulgate binding rules, but most do not.

⁸⁸ http://www.naturalforeststandard.com.

⁸⁹ http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/mechanisms/clean_development_mechanism/items/2718.php.

⁹⁰ http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/ets/index_en.htm.

⁹¹ Bernstein, Betsill, Hoffman & Paterson, n. 34 above; Boyd, W. & Salzman, J., ‘The Curious Case of Greening in Carbon Markets’ (2011) 41 Environmental Law, pp. 73–94Google Scholar; M. Peters-Stanley & K.E. Hamilton , ‘Developing Dimension: State of the Voluntary Carbon Market 2012’, May 2012, available at: http://www.forest-trends.org/publication_details.php?publicationID=3164.

⁹² Green, J.F., ‘Private Standards in the Climate Regime: The Greenhouse Gas Protocol’ (2010) 12(3) Business and Politics, Article 3.Google Scholar

⁹³ http://www.theclimateregistry.org.

⁹⁴ http://www.markit.com/en/products/environmental/markit-environmental-registry.page.

⁹⁵ http://carbontradexchange.com.

⁹⁶ https://www.theice.com/ccx.jhtml.

⁹⁷ https://www.cdproject.net/en-US/Pages/HomePage.aspx.

⁹⁸ http://www.wbcsd.org/about/organization.aspx.

⁹⁹ http://www.clintonfoundation.org/main/our-work/by-initiative/clinton-climate-initiative/about.html.

¹⁰⁰ http://www.globalelectricity.org.

¹⁰¹ http://www.reeep.org.

¹⁰² http://www.acccrn.org/about-acccrn/background.

¹⁰³ http://www.climatenetwork.org.

¹⁰⁴ http://www.ieta.org.

¹⁰⁵ http://www.c2es.org.

¹⁰⁶ Galaz, V., Crona, B., Österblom, H., Olsson, P. & Folke, C., ‘Polycentric Systems and Interacting Planetary Boundaries – Emerging Governance of Climate Change – Ocean Acidification – Marine Biodiversity’ (2011) 81 Ecological Economics, pp. 21–32.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁷ Ibid.

¹⁰⁸ http://www.worldmayorscouncil.org.

¹⁰⁹ http://www.greeneconomycoalition.org.

¹¹⁰ Galaz, Crona, Österblom, Olsson & Folke, n. 106 above, at p. 23.

¹¹¹ Bartley, T., ‘Institutional Emergence in an Era of Globalization: The Rise of Transnational Private Regulation of Labor and Environmental Conditions’ (2007) 113(2) American Journal of Sociology, pp. 297–351CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Dingwerth, K. & Pattberg, P., ‘World Politics and Organizational Fields: The Case of Transnational Sustainability Governance’ (2009) 15(4) European Journal of International Relations, pp. 707–44.Google Scholar

¹¹² Abbott, n. 21 above.

¹¹³ K.W. Abbott, J.F. Green & R.O. Keohane, ‘Organizational Ecology and Organizational Strategies in World Politics’, 9 July 2013, available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2293678.

¹¹⁴ Green, n. 33 above.

¹¹⁵ GRI, ‘How do GRI and the Carbon Disclosure Project Align in 2011?’, 5 July 2011, available at: https://www.globalreporting.org/information/news-and-press-center/Pages/How-do-GRI-and-the-Carbon-Disclosure-Project-align-in-2011.aspx.

¹¹⁶ Abbott, K.W. & Snidal, D., ‘International Regulation without International Government: Improving International Organization Performance through Orchestration’ (2010) 5 Review of International Organizations, pp. 315–44.Google Scholar

¹¹⁷ Abbott & Snidal, n. 26 above; Keohane & Victor, n. 37 above.

¹¹⁸ Hooghe, L. & Marks, G., ‘Unraveling the Central State, But How? Types of Multi-Level Governance’ (2003) 97(2) American Political Science Review, pp. 233–43Google Scholar; Peel, Godden & Keenan, n. 40 above.

¹¹⁹ Hooghe & Marks, ibid., at pp. 236–9.

¹²⁰ Ibid.

¹²¹ ‘REDD’ refers to projects for ‘Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation’. ‘REDD+’ projects also address sustainable forest management. See: http://www.unep.org/climatechange/reddplus/Introduction/tabid/29525/Default.aspx. Transnational organizations such as the CCBA have developed specific standards for national programmes and projects: see, e.g., http://www.redd-standards.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=91&Itemid=136.

¹²² Börzel, T. & Risse, T., ‘Governance Without a State: Can It Work?’ (2010) 4(2) Regulation & Governance, pp. 113–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Büthe, T., ‘Private Regulation in the Global Economy: A (P)review’ (2010) 12(3) Business and Politics, Article 2.Google Scholar

¹²³ Abbott, n. 24 above.

¹²⁴ L.B. Andonova & M. Levy, ‘Franchising Global Governance: Making Sense of the Johannesburg Type II Partnerships’, in O.S. Stokke & O.B. Thommessen (eds), Yearbook of International Cooperation on Environment and Development (Earthscan, 2003), pp. 19–31. The UN maintains a registry of partnerships, available at: http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?menu=1500.

¹²⁵ http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/aboutcommitments.html.

¹²⁶ http://www.wri.org.

¹²⁷ Green, n. 92 above, at p. 14.

¹²⁸ VCS, ‘Groundbreaking Jurisdictional REDD+ Requirements Released’, 4 Oct. 2012, available at: http://v-c-s.org/news-events/news/groundbreaking-jurisdictional-redd-requirements-released.

¹²⁹ J.F. Green & G. Auld, ‘Unbundling the Regime Complex: The Effects of Private Authority’, Working Paper, 24 July 2012, available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2116296.

¹³⁰ http://caringforclimate.org/about/list-of-signatories.

¹³¹ http://www.climatewise.org.uk/about.

¹³² http://www.ghgprotocol.org/about-ghgp.

¹³³ http://database.globalreporting.org.

¹³⁴ http://www.iclei.org/get-involved/join-iclei.html.

¹³⁵ http://www.vcsprojectdatabase.org.

¹³⁶ M. Peters-Stanley & D. Yin, ‘Maneuvering the Mosaic: State of the Voluntary Carbon Markets 2013’, Forest Trends, June 2013, available at: http://www.forest-trends.org/publication_details.php?publicationID53898.

¹³⁷ https://s3.amazonaws.com/CCBA/CCB_Standards_FactSheet.pdf.

¹³⁸ Peters-Stanley & Yin, n. 136 above, at p. 35.

¹³⁹ http://www.reeep.org/reeep-brief-overview.

¹⁴⁰ http://citiesclimateregistry.org/home.

¹⁴¹ https://www.cdproject.net/en-US/Programmes/Pages/CDP-Investors.aspx.

¹⁴² http://tiny.cc/GGFRP.

¹⁴³ World Bank, ‘State and Trends of the Carbon Market 2012’, 30 May 2012, available at: http://tiny.cc/carbonmarket2012. New carbon trading programmes in, e.g., California and Australia, should increase demand for compliance credits.

¹⁴⁴ Offsets covering 101 million CO₂ equivalent tons were contracted in 2012, increasing 4% year-over-year; total market value declined by 11% to $523 million: Peters-Stanley & Yin, n. 136 above.

¹⁴⁵ http://www.southpolecarbon.com/_downloads/PR110705_354SocialCarbon.pdf.

¹⁴⁶ http://www.carbonfix.info/Project.html?PHPSESSID=4g0kp5isbpd4d9i0ufl4vij957. Carbon Fix was acquired by the Gold Standard in 2012.

¹⁴⁷ Ibid.

¹⁴⁸ Büthe, T., ‘Global Private Politics: A Research Agenda’ (2010) 12(3) Business and Politics, Article 12; Green, n. 92 above.Google Scholar

¹⁴⁹ NGOs and other norm entrepreneurs frequently perform these tasks.

¹⁵⁰ Büthe, n. 148 above; Büthe, n. 122 above. Some observers see labelling programmes as inappropriately extending market structures: e.g., Fuchs, D. & Kalfaggiani, A., ‘The Causes and Consequences of Private Food Governance’ (2010) 12 Business and Politics, Article 5.Google Scholar

¹⁵¹ Abbott, n. 21 above.

¹⁵² Abbott & Snidal, n. 87 above.

¹⁵³ See, e.g., Gulbrandsen, L.H., Transnational Environmental Governance: The Emergence and Effects of the Certification of Forests and Fisheries (Edward Elgar, 2010), pp. 127–8 (Norwegian resistance to the Marine Stewardship Council).Google Scholar

¹⁵⁴ For recent examples from China, see S. Chan, ‘Partnerships for Sustainable Development: Global Diffusion and Local Adaptation’, Institute for Environmental Studies, Newsletter No. 2, June 2013, available at: http://www.ivm.vu.nl/en/news-and-agenda/IVM-Newsletter/latest-issue-newsletter/Environmental-Policy-Analysis/index.asp.

¹⁵⁵ Galaz, Crona, Österblom, Olsson & Folke, n. 106 above.

¹⁵⁶ Abbott & Snidal, n. 87 above.

¹⁵⁷ Most of the transnational organizations identified in Bulkeley et al. (n. 54 above) and in Hoffman (n. 82 above) were created since 2001–02. Most voluntary carbon market organizations were established even more recently: Green, n. 92 above.

¹⁵⁸ Hoffman, n. 82 above.

¹⁵⁹ Abbott & Snidal, n. 87 above.

¹⁶⁰ Overdevest, C., ‘Comparing Forest Certification Schemes: The Case of Ratcheting Standards in the Forest Sector’ (2010) 8(1) Socio-Economic Review, pp. 47–76.Google Scholar

¹⁶¹ Keck & Sikkink, n. 25 above, at p.16.

¹⁶² Ibid., at pp. 12–3, 14–6.

¹⁶³ Abbott, n. 24 above; Abbott & Snidal, n. 116 above.

¹⁶⁴ Most private climate standards recognize or hew closely to public rules, to enhance legitimacy and minimize switching costs for adherents.

¹⁶⁵ Ostrom, n. 35 above; Ostrom, E., ‘Beyond Markets and States: Polycentric Governance of Complex Economic Systems’ (2010) 100(3) American Economic Review, pp. 641–72.Google Scholar

¹⁶⁶ Galaz, Crona, Österblom, Olsson & Folke, n. 106 above.

¹⁶⁷ This helps to explain why international and transnational climate institutions are so numerous and diverse: Keohane & Victor, n. 37 above.

¹⁶⁸ Sunstein, C.R., ‘Social Norms and Social Roles’ (1996) 96 Columbia Law Review, pp. 903–68Google Scholar; Finnemore, M. & Sikkink, K., ‘International Norm Dynamics and Political Change’ (1998) 52(4) International Organization, pp. 887–917.Google Scholar

¹⁶⁹ Roberts, N.C. & King, P.J., ‘Policy Entrepreneurs: Their Activity Structure and Function in the Policy Process’ (1991) 1(2) Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, pp. 147–75.Google Scholar

¹⁷⁰ Galaz, Crona, Österblom, Olsson & Folke, n. 106 above.

¹⁷¹ http://www.cdmgoldstandard.org.

¹⁷² For example, the Gold Standard acquired the standards organization CarbonFix in 2012.

¹⁷³ http://www.isealalliance.org.

¹⁷⁴ A. Loconto & E. Fouilleux, ‘Politics of Private Regulation: ISEAL and the Shaping of Transnational Sustainability Governance’ (2013 forthcoming) Regulation & Governance.

¹⁷⁵ Abbott & Snidal, n. 116 above.

¹⁷⁶ Ibid.; Abbott, n. 21 above; Abbott & Snidal, n. 26 above; cf. Abbott, Genschel, Snidal & Zangl, n. 23 above.

¹⁷⁷ Orchestration theory hypothesizes that successful orchestrators are ‘focal’, with an accepted leadership position in an issue area (Abbott, Genschel, Snidal & Zangl, n. 23 above) and strong connections with other institutions (Hale & Roger, n. 28 above).

¹⁷⁸ In orchestration theory, orchestrators engage intermediaries to influence the behaviour of target actors: Abbott, Genschel, Snidal & Zangl, n. 23 above. Here I de-emphasize targets and focus on the role of orchestrators in supporting and coordinating other organizations, many of which will operate as intermediaries.

¹⁷⁹ On ‘enrolling’, see Latour, B., ‘The Powers of Association’, in Law, J. (ed), Power, Action and Belief: A New Sociology of Knowledge? (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986), pp. 264–80Google Scholar; Braithwaite, J. & Drahos, P., Global Business Regulation (Cambridge University Press, 2000)Google Scholar; Black, J., ‘Enrolling Actors in Regulatory Systems: Examples from UK Financial Services Regulation’ (2003 Spring) Public Law, pp. 63–91.Google Scholar

¹⁸⁰ Stewart, Oppenheimer & Rudyk, ‘Reaching International Cooperation’, n. 42 above.

¹⁸¹ Barnett, M. & Finnemore, M., Rules for the World: International Organizations in Global Politics (Cornell University Press, 2004).Google Scholar

¹⁸² Falkner, R., ‘Private Environmental Governance and International Relations: Exploring the Links’ (2003) 3(2) Global Environmental Politics, pp. 72–87Google Scholar; Levy, D. & Newell, P., ‘Business Strategy and International Environmental Governance: Toward a Neo-Gramscian Synthesis’ (2002) 2(4) Global Environmental Politics, pp. 84–100.Google Scholar

¹⁸³ Biermann & Siebenhüner, n. 66 above.

¹⁸⁴ Haas, P., ‘Introduction: Epistemic Communities and International Policy Coordination’ (1992) 46(1) International Organization, pp. 1–35.Google Scholar

¹⁸⁵ Keck & Sikkink, n. 25 above; Risse, T., Ropp, S.C. & Sikkink, K., The Power of Human Rights: International Norms and Domestic Change (Cambridge University Press, 1999).Google Scholar

¹⁸⁶ Securities and Exchange Commission, ‘Commission Guidance Regarding Disclosure Related to Climate Change’ (2010) 75(25) Federal Register, at p. 6290.

¹⁸⁷ GEO-5 for Business: Impacts of a Changing Environment on the Corporate Sector (UNEP, 2013), available at: http://www.unep.org/geo/geo5.asp.

¹⁸⁸ http://www.climatewise.org.uk.

¹⁸⁹ http://www.iigcc.org.

¹⁹⁰ http://www.ceres.org/investor-network/incr.

¹⁹¹ http://www.unepfi.org/psi.

¹⁹² http://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/corp_ext_content/ifc_external_corporate_site/home.

¹⁹³ http://www1.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/Topics_Ext_Content/IFC_External_Corporate_Site/IFC+Sustainability/Sustainability+Framework.

¹⁹⁴ https://www.climateinvestmentfunds.org/cif/home.

¹⁹⁵ http://www.thegef.org/gef.

¹⁹⁶ Advocates can create negative incentives through mechanisms such as consumer boycotts.

¹⁹⁷ Mattli & Woods, n. 76 above, at pp. 35–6.

¹⁹⁸ A few have become more active in this area. The UN Global Compact, which has long avoided any suggestion of ‘enforcement’, now publicly identifies firms that fail to submit timely communications and those expelled for failure to disclose. In addition, its ‘differentiation programme’ encourages NGOs to assess participants’ performance, so that it can single out superior performers: see: http://www.unglobalcompact.org/COP/differentiation_programme.html.