¹ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010 (FAO, 2010), p. 10 Google Scholar.

² Smith, P. et al., ‘Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU)’, in O. Edenhofer et al. (eds), Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge University Press, 2014), pp. 811–922 Google Scholar, at 816.

³ Gullison, R. et al., ‘Tropical Forests and Climate Policy’ (2007) 316(5827) Science, pp. 985–986 Google Scholar.

⁴ New York, NY (US), 9 May 1992, in force 21 Mar. 1994, available at: https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/conveng.pdf.

⁵ UNFCCC Secretariat, Decision 4/CP.15, ‘Methodological Guidance for Activities relating to Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation and the Role of Conservation, Sustainable Management of Forests and Enhancement of Forest Carbon Stocks in Developing Countries’, UN Doc. FCCC/CP/2009/11/Add.1, 30 Mar. 2010.

⁶ Simonet, G. et al., REDD+Projects in 2014: An Overview based on a New Database and Typology (Paris-Dauphine University, 2014)Google Scholar.

⁷ Advisory Group on Finance & Collaborative Partnership on Forests, ‘2012 Study on Forest Financing’, United Nations Forum on Forests, June 2012, available at: http://www.un.org/esa/forests/pdf/AGF_Study_July_2012.pdf.

⁸ Andonova, L., Betsill, M. & Bulkeley, H., ‘Transnational Climate Governance’ (2009) 9(2) Global Environmental Politics, pp. 52–73 Google Scholar, at 55.

⁹ Angelsen, A., ‘REDD+as Result-based Aid: General Lessons and Bilateral Agreements of Norway’ (2017) 21(2) Review of Development Economics, pp. 237–264 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁰ Norman, M. & Nakhooda, S., The State of REDD+Finance (Center for Global Development, 2014), p. 2 Google Scholar. ODA comprises ‘flows of official financing administered with the promotion of the economic development and welfare of developing countries as the main objective, and which are concessional in character, with a grant element of at least 25%’: Dann, P., The Law of Development Cooperation: A Comparative Analysis of the World Bank, the EU and Germany (Cambridge University Press, 2013), p. 47 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹¹ van Asselt, H. & McDermott, C., ‘The Institutional Complex for REDD: A “Benevolent Jigsaw”?’, in C. Voigt (ed.), Research Handbook on REDD+and International Law (Edward Elgar, 2016), pp. 63–88 Google Scholar, at 82.

¹² See, e.g., ibid.; A. Savaresi, ‘The Legal Status and Role of REDD-Plus Safeguards’, in Voigt, ibid., pp. 126–56; Savaresi, A., ‘A Glimpse into the Future of the Climate Regime: Lessons from the REDD+Architecture’ (2016) 25(2) Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law, pp. 186–196 Google Scholar, at 191–4.

¹³ van Asselt, H., Mehling, M. & Siebert, C.K., ‘The Changing Architecture of International Climate Change Law’, in G. van Calster, W. Vandenberghe & L. Reins (eds), Research Handbook on Climate Change Mitigation Law (Edward Elgar, 2015), pp. 1–30 Google Scholar, at 27; G. Shaffer, ‘Transnational Legal Process and State Change: Law and Society Inquiry’, Minnesota Legal Studies Research Paper No. 10-28, 1 Aug. 2011, available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=1901952, p. 7. Cf. Abbott, K.W., ‘The Transnational Regime Complex for Climate Change’ (2012) 30(4) Environment & Planning C, pp. 571–590 Google Scholar; Abbott, K.W., ‘Strengthening the Transnational Regime Complex for Climate Change’ (2013) 3(1) Transnational Environmental Law, pp. 57–88 Google Scholar.

¹⁴ Linked to the direct control of financial flows or ‘fund-based authority’: van Asselt & McDermott, n. 11 above, p. 78.

¹⁵ J.B. Alcorn, ‘Lessons Learned from Community Forestry in Latin America and Their Relevance for REDD+’, Forest Carbon, Markets and Communities Program, Jan. 2014, p. 4, available at: http://www.fcmcglobal.org/documents/CF_Latin_America.pdf.

¹⁶ Vergara, W. et al., The Climate and Development Challenge for Latin America and the Caribbean: Options for Climate-Resilient, Low-Carbon Development (Inter-American Development Bank, Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, World Wildlife Fund, 2013), p. 42 Google Scholar.

¹⁷ Recio, M.E., ‘Current Developments in Carbon & Climate Law: Latin America and the Caribbean’ (2017) 13(2) Carbon and Climate Law Review, pp. 160–161 Google Scholar; Aguilar-Støen, M., Toni, F. & Hirsch, C., ‘Forest Governance in Latin America: Strategies for Implementing REDD in Environmental Governance’, in F. de Castro, B. Hogenboom & M. Baud (eds), Environmental Governance in Latin America (Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), pp. 205–233 Google Scholar, at 227.

¹⁸ Equivalent to USD 819 million: Watson, C., Patel, S. & Schalatek, L., Climate Finance Thematic Briefing: REDD+Finance (Overseas Development Institute, 2016), p. 3 Google Scholar.

¹⁹ UN-REDD Programme website, available at: http://www.un-redd.org.

²⁰ FCPF website, available at: http://www.forestcarbonpartnership.org.

²¹ Brazil, Mexico and Peru; Ecuador, Guatemala, and Honduras joined in 2015: see Climate Investment Funds (CIF) website, available at: http://www.climateinvestmentfunds.org; and FIP, ‘FIP Fact Sheet’, 2016, available at: https://www.climateinvestmentfunds.org/fund/forest-investment-program.

²² Alvarez, J., International Organizations as Law-makers (Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 129 Google Scholar (an entity that ‘is not a subject of international law … is arguably not able to be a party to treaties, present claims against other international persons, possess other international rights and duties, or otherwise exist with relative autonomy in the legal sphere’); see also Klabbers, J., ‘The Concept of Legal Personality’ (2005) 11 Ius Gentium, pp. 35–66 Google Scholar. On the relationship between subjecthood and international legal personality, see Klabbers, J., An Introduction to International Institutional Law (Cambridge University Press, 2009), pp. 39–52 Google Scholar.

²³ Simma, B. & Paulus, A.L., ‘The Responsibility of Individuals for Human Rights Abuses in Internal Armed Conflicts: A Positivist View’ (1999) 93(2) American Journal of International Law, pp. 302–316 Google Scholar, at 303, 305; Allott, P., ‘The True Function of Law in the International Community’ (1997–98) 5(2) Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies, pp. 391–413 Google Scholar, at 404; Case of the SS Lotus (France v. Turkey), Judgment, 7 September 1927, 1927 PCIJ (Ser. A, No. 10), p. 18.

²⁴ This has also been referred to as the voluntarism principle: Roberts, A. & Sivakumaran, S., ‘Lawmaking by Nonstate Actors: Engaging Armed Groups in the Creation of International Humanitarian Law’ (2012) 37(1) Yale Journal of International Law, pp. 107–152 Google Scholar, at 112.

²⁵ Art. 38, Statute of the International Court of Justice (ICJ), San Francisco, CA (United States (US), 26 June 1945, in force 24 Oct. 1945, available at: http://www.icj-cij.org/en/statute. Treaties and international custom are considered the main sources of international law. The fourth source, judicial decisions and teachings of highly qualified publicists, is considered to provide just ‘evidence of the existence of a norm’: Shelton, D., ‘Soft Law’, in D. Armstrong (ed.), Routledge Handbook of International Law (Routledge, 2009), pp. 68–80 Google Scholar, at 68, 79.

²⁶ Berman, A. & Wessel, R., ‘The International Legal Form and Status of Informal International Lawmaking Bodies: Consequences for Accountability’, in J. Pauwelyn, R. Wessel & J. Wouters (eds), Informal International Lawmaking (Oxford University Press, 2012), pp. 36–58 Google Scholar, at 36.

²⁷ d’Aspremont, J., ‘Introduction – Non-State Actors in International Law: Oscillating between Concepts and Dynamics’, in J. d’Aspremont (ed.), Participants in the International Legal System: Multiple Perspectives on Non-State Actors in International Law (Routledge, 2011), pp. 1–21 Google Scholar, at 4.

²⁸ Roberts & Sivakumaran, n. 24 above, p. 116.

²⁹ Hollis, D., ‘Why State Consent Still Matters: Non-State Actors, Treaties, and the Changing Sources of International Law’ (2005) 23(1) Berkeley Journal of International Law, pp. 137–174 Google Scholar, at 172.

³⁰ The Conference of the Parties (COP), such as the UNFCCC COP, can be seen as a treaty body: see, e.g., Brunnée, J., ‘COPing with Consent: Lawmaking under Multilateral Environmental Agreements’ (2002) 15(1) Leiden Journal of International Law, pp. 1–52 Google Scholar, at 16–8; or as ‘autonomous institutional arrangements’ similar to traditional international organizations with a will of their own: Churchill, R.R. & Ulfstein, G., ‘Autonomous Institutional Arrangements in Multilateral Environmental Agreements: A Little-Noticed Phenomenon in International Law’ (2000) 94(4) American Journal of International Law, pp. 623–659 Google Scholar, at 658–9.

³¹ Roberts & Sivakumaran, n. 24 above, p. 116. For Hollis, they are ‘extra-national actors’: Hollis, n. 29 above, p. 161.

³² Cf. International Court of Justice (ICJ), Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in Armed Conflict, Advisory Opinion, 8 July 1996, ICJ Reports 1996, p. 66, at 79, para. 25. On attributed powers of institutions, see Klabbers (2009), n. 22 above, pp. 55–73.

³³ In general, non-state actors ‘are not the state, and not governmental’: Peters, A., Koechlin, L. & Fenner Zinkernagel, G., ‘Non-State Actors as Standard Setters: Framing the Issue in an Interdisciplinary Fashion’, in A. Peters et al. (eds), Non-State Actors as Standard Setters (Cambridge University Press, 2009), pp. 1–32 Google Scholar, at 14; Alston, P., ‘The “Not-a-Cat” Syndrome: Can the International Human Rights Regime Accommodate Non-State Actors?’, in P. Alston (ed.), Non-State Actors and Human Rights (Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 3–36 Google Scholar.

³⁴ Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations, Advisory Opinion, 11 Apr. 1949, ICJ Reports 1949, p. 174, para. 174.

³⁵ Ibid., para. 179.

³⁶ Similar to international organizations: Alvarez, n. 22 above, p. 129.

³⁷ Hollis, n. 29 above, p. 173.

³⁸ Klabbers (2009), n. 22 above, pp. 5, 9.

³⁹ Amerasinghe, C., Principles of the Institutional Law of International Organisations (Cambridge University Press, 2005), pp. 44–48 Google Scholar; Churchill & Ulfstein, n. 30 above, p. 632.

⁴⁰ Klabbers (2009), n. 22 above, pp. 5, 9.

⁴¹ Berman & Wessel, n. 26 above, p. 36.

⁴² Pauwelyn, J., Wessel, R.A & Wouters, J., ‘When Structures Become Shackles: Stagnation and Dynamics in International Lawmaking’ (2014) 25(3) European Journal of International Law, pp. 733–763 Google Scholar, at 743.

⁴³ Wiersema, A., ‘Climate Change, Forests, and International Law: REDD’s Descent into Irrelevance’ (2014) 47(1) Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law, pp. 1–66 Google Scholar.

⁴⁴ Decisions 9/CP.19, 10/CP.19, 11/CP.19, 12/CP.19, 13/CP.19, 14/CP.19 and 15/CP.19, UN Doc. FCCC/CP/2013/10/Add.1, 31 Jan. 2014.

⁴⁵ See the Warsaw Framework website at: https://unfccc.int/topics/land-use/resources/warsaw-framework-for-redd-plus. Recio, M.E., ‘The Warsaw Framework and the Future of REDD’ (2014) 24(1) Yearbook of International Environmental Law, pp. 37–69 Google Scholar.

⁴⁶ Savaresi, ‘The Legal Status and Role of REDD-Plus Safeguards’, n. 12 above, p. 135; van Asselt & McDermott, n. 11 above.

⁴⁷ Paris (France), 12 Dec. 2015, in force 4 Nov. 2016, available at: http://unfccc.int/paris_agreement/items/9485.php.

⁴⁸ Art. 5(1) Paris Agreement. This provision confers less of a sense of obligation (‘should’) than the UNFCCC in Art. 4.1(d) (‘shall’).

⁴⁹ Art. 5(2) Paris Agreement.

⁵⁰ Ibid.

⁵¹ Cf. Ellis, J., ‘Shades of Grey: Soft Law and the Validity of Public International Law’ (2012) 25(2) Leiden Journal of International Law, pp. 313–334 Google Scholar, at 318.

⁵² See, e.g., Brunnée, n. 30 above; Churchill & Ulfstein, n. 30 above; L.K. Camenzuli, ‘The Development of International Environmental Law at the Multilateral Environmental Agreements’ Conference of the Parties and Its Validity’, 2007, available at: http://www2.ecolex.org/server2neu.php/libcat/docs/LI/MON-085461.pdf; A. Savaresi, ‘The Paris Agreement: Reflections on an International Law Odyssey’, European Society of International Law 2016 Annual Conference, Riga (Latvia), 31 Jan. 2017, available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2912001, p. 5; van Asselt, H., Sindico, F. & Mehling, M., ‘Global Climate Change and the Fragmentation of International Law’ (2008) 30(4) Law & Policy, pp. 423–429 Google Scholar, at 430.

⁵³ Churchill & Ulfstein, n. 30 above, p. 641; Wiersema, A., ‘The New International Law-Makers? Conferences of the Parties to Multilateral Environmental Agreements’ (2009) 31(1) Michigan Journal of International Law, pp. 231–287 Google Scholar, at 276–8. This view has been criticized: Staal, T., ‘Exercising or Evading International Public Authority?’ (2016) 7(1) Goettingen Journal of International Law, pp. 9–48, at 33–4Google Scholar.

⁵⁴ Brunnée, n. 30 above, pp. 16–18.

⁵⁵ Ibid., p. 18.

⁵⁶ The UNFCCC’s mandate for lawmaking on REDD+is not strong; the UNFCCC does require members to enhance the conservation of forests, but developing countries have no obligations of mitigation results: see Arts 3.3 and 4.1(d), UNFCCC.

⁵⁷ Sands, P., Principles of International Environmental Law (Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 144 Google Scholar.

⁵⁸ Vihma, A., ‘Analyzing Soft Law and Hard Law in Climate Change’, in K. Kulovesi, M. Mehling & E. Hollo (eds), Climate Change and the Law (Edwar Elgar, 2013), pp. 143–164 Google Scholar, at 145; van Asselt, Mehling & Siebert, n. 13 above.

⁵⁹ J. Pauwelyn, ‘Informal International Lawmaking: Framing the Concept and Research Questions’, in Pauwelyn, Wessel & Wouters, n. 26 above, pp. 13–34, at 15.

⁶⁰ Similarly, the technical details of the Kyoto Protocol (Kyoto (Japan), 11 Dec. 1997, in force 16 Feb. 2005, available at: http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.pdf) were greatly developed through COP decisions: Brunnée, n. 30 above; Boyle, A. & Chinkin, C., The Making of International Law (Oxford University Press, 2007), pp. 216–220 Google Scholar; Savaresi, n. 52 above.

⁶¹ For an overview see Wiersema, n. 43 above.

⁶² See Brunnée, n. 30 above; Boyle & Chinkin, n. 60 above, pp. 216–20; Savaresi, n. 52 above, p. 5.

⁶³ Klabbers, J., ‘The Undesirability of Soft Law’ (1998) 67(4) Nordic Journal of International Law, pp. 381–391 Google Scholar; Klabbers, J., ‘The Redundancy of Soft Law’ (1996) 65(2) Nordic Journal of International Law, pp. 167–182 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶⁴ Klabbers (2009), n. 22 above, p. 183.

⁶⁵ The rules are, at the same time, more precise than, e.g., other provisions in the Paris Agreement. Cf. Abbott, K.W. et al., ‘The Concept of Legalization’ (2000) 54(3) International Organization, pp. 401–419 Google Scholar, at 412–3; but see Finnemore, M. & Toope, S.J., ‘Alternatives to “Legalization”: Richer Views of Law and Politics’ (2001) 55(3) International Organization, pp. 743–758 Google Scholar.

⁶⁶ UNFCCC Secretariat, Decision 1/CP.16, ‘The Cancun Agreements: Outcome of the Work of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-Term Cooperative Action under the Convention’, UN Doc. FCCC/CP/2010/7/Add.1, 15 Mar. 2011, paras 71–2.

⁶⁷ It should address land tenure, gender, forest governance: ibid.

⁶⁸ Ibid., Appendix II.

⁶⁹ Cf. Decision 12/CP.19, n. 44 above.

⁷⁰ Decision 1/CP.16, n. 66 above, Appendix II.

⁷¹ Recio, n. 45 above, pp. 60–1, Savaresi, ‘The Legal Status and Role of REDD-Plus Safeguards’, n. 12 above.

⁷² Cf. Decision 9/CP.19, n. 44 above, para. 4. See Bodin, B., Väänänen, E. & van Asselt, H., ‘Putting REDD+Environmental Safeguards into Practice: Recommendations for Effective and Country-specific Implementation’ (2015) 9(2) Carbon & Climate Law Review, pp. 168–182 Google Scholar, at 171. However, see Savaresi, ‘The Legal Status and Role of REDD-Plus Safeguards’, n. 12 above, p. 135 (‘[t]he fact … that information on the implementation of safeguards is a requirement … seems to indicate that compliance with safeguards is mandatory … for Parties seeking REDD+results-based payments’).

⁷³ Savaresi, ‘The Legal Status and Role of REDD-Plus Safeguards’, n. 12 above, pp. 134–5; Bodin, Väänänen & van Asselt, ibid., p. 168.

⁷⁴ Decision 1/CP.16, n. 66 above, para. 71; Abbott et al., n. 65 above, p. 415.

⁷⁵ Pauwelyn, Wessel & Wouters, n. 42 above, p. 756.

⁷⁶ UNFCCC Secretariat, Decision 2/CP.13, ‘Reducing Emissions from Deforestation in Developing Countries: Approaches to Stimulate Action’, UN Doc. FCCC/CP/2007/6/Add.1, 14 Mar. 2008, paras 2, 3.

⁷⁷ Decision 1/CP.16, n. 66 above, para. 73.

⁷⁸ But voluntary commitments can be set in countries’ nationally determined contributions: see Art. 4 Paris Agreement.

⁷⁹ Recio, n. 45 above, p. 47.

⁸⁰ Savaresi, ‘The Legal Status and Role of REDD-Plus Safeguards’, n. 12 above, pp. 136–7.

⁸¹ Angelsen, A. et al. (eds), Analysing REDD+: Challenges and Choices (Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), 2012), p. 381 Google Scholar.

⁸² Countries in the region that have passed REDD+laws include Ecuador, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, and Peru: Recio, n. 17 above. See also S. Aguilar & M.E. Recio, ‘Climate Change Law in Latin America’, in Kulovesi, Mehling & Hollo, n. 58 above, pp. 653–78.

⁸³ Including Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico, Paraguay, and Peru: REDD+Web Platform, available at: http://redd.unfccc.int.

⁸⁴ Including Brazil, Colombia, and Ecuador: REDD+Web Platform, ibid.

⁸⁵ E.g., Brazil and Ecuador submitted their REDD+strategy to the REDD+Web Platform, ibid. Peru and Chile have also developed strategies: Government of Peru, Estrategia Nacional Sobre Bosques y Cambio Climático, Supreme Decree No. 007-2016-MINAM (2016); Government of Chile, Estrategia Nacional de Cambio Climático y Recursos Vegetacionales 2017–2025 (2016).

⁸⁶ Brazil and Ecuador: REDD+Web Platform, n. 83 above.

⁸⁷ Decision 9/CP.19, n. 44 above, para. 5.

⁸⁸ See van Asselt and McDermott, n. 11 above, p. 82 (arguing that regulatory gaps in the REDD+rules allow other governance arrangements to play a role in rule making); Savaresi, ‘The Legal Status and Role of REDD-Plus Safeguards’, n. 12 above, p. 135.

⁸⁹ FCPF, ‘FCPF Information Memorandum’, 13 June 2008, p. 13, available at: https://www.forestcarbonpartnership.org/governance.

⁹⁰ CIF, ‘Linkages between REDD+Readiness and the Forest Investment Program’, Nov. 2014, pp. 5–6, available at: https://www.climateinvestmentfunds.org/sites/default/files/knowledge-documents/linkages_between_redd_readiness_and_fip_nov2014_0.pdf.

⁹¹ Without prejudice to differences among them: see M. Young, ‘REDD+and Interacting Legal Regimes’, in Voigt, n. 11 above, pp. 89–125, at 121.

⁹² The FCPF was established by the World Bank: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, ‘Charter Establishing the FCPF’, 23 Dec. 2014, Art. 2 and Preamble, paras (B) and (C), available at: https://www.forestcarbonpartnership.org/sites/fcp/files/2015/January/FCPF%20Charter%20-%2012-23-14%20clean.pdf. The FIP is a targeted programme under the Special Climate Fund established by the World Bank: CIF, ‘Governance Framework for the Strategic Climate Fund’, Nov. 2008, para. 4, available at: https://www.climateinvestmentfunds.org/sites/default/files/SCF_Governance_Framework.pdf. The UN-REDD Programme was convened by the FAO, the UN Development Programme (UNDP) and the UN Environment Programme: UN-REDD Programme, ‘Terms of Reference: UN-REDD Programme Multi-Partner Trust Fund’, 25 Nov. 2015, para. 3.

⁹³ Similar to international agencies: cf. Berman & Wessel, n. 26 above, p. 43.

⁹⁴ FCPF, n. 89 above, p. 11. On the FIP process, see C. Lang, ‘The World Bank’s FIP: The Story so Far’, REDD Monitor, 20 July 2009, available at: http://www.redd-monitor.org/2009/07/20/the-world-banks-forest-investment-programme-the-story-so-far.

⁹⁵ ‘Dedicated Grant Mechanism for Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities’, available at: http://www.dgmglobal.org.

⁹⁶ Trust funds are often placed in organizations experienced in the field: Gold, J., ‘Trust Funds in International Law: The Contribution of the International Monetary Fund to a Code of Principles’ (1978) 72(4) American Journal of International Law, pp. 856–866 Google Scholar, at 860. The FIP’s donors are the United Kingdom (UK), the US, Norway, Japan, Australia, Sweden, Spain and Denmark, see the FIP website, available at: http://www.climatefundsupdate.org/listing/forest-investment-program. UN-REDD’s main donor is Norway, followed by the European Union (EU), Denmark, Spain, Japan, Luxemburg and Switzerland. FCPF donors are the same as those of UN-REDD, as well as the EU, Australia, Canada, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, the UK, and the US: FCPF website, available at: https://www.forestcarbonpartnership.org.

⁹⁷ The World Bank is the trustee for the FIP and the FCPF. The UN-REDD Programme is administered by the UNDP Multi-Partner Trust Fund Office.

⁹⁸ Unlike other funding initiatives, FIP funds can be implemented by different multilateral development banks whose rules apply. Cf. CIF, ‘Design Document for the Forest Investment Program: A Targeted Program under the Special Climate Fund Trust Fund’, 22 June 2009, paras 35–6, available at: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTCC/Resources/FIP_Design_Document.pdf.

⁹⁹ UN-REDD, n. 92 above, Section III, para. 1.

¹⁰⁰ UNDP, ‘UNDP’s Social and Environmental Standards’, 1 Jan. 2015.

¹⁰¹ Or the implementation organization, or the trustee.

¹⁰² The FIP is under the governing structure of the Special Climate Fund.

¹⁰³ See FCPF, n. 92 above.

¹⁰⁴ FCPF, n. 92 above, Art. 10.1(b); UN-REDD, n. 92 above, paras 31–5; CIF, n. 92 above, para. 31.

¹⁰⁵ Exceptionally, by eligible recipient countries: see CIF, n. 98 above, para. 18; CIF, n. 92 above, para. 17.

¹⁰⁶ The FCPF’s Participants Committee has 14 representatives of donors and recipients; and the FIP Sub-Committee includes six representatives from each constituency: FCPF, n. 92 above, Art. 11, paras 11.1.(a)–(d); CIF, n. 98 above, para. 25(e).

¹⁰⁷ UN-REDD, n. 92 above, para. 36.

¹⁰⁸ FCPF, n. 92 above, Art. 11; CIF, n. 98 above, paras 17–21; UN-REDD, n. 92 above, para. 36. In the past, the UN-REDD Programme’s Policy Board allowed representatives of civil society and indigenous peoples as full members: UN-REDD Programme, ‘Policy Board Terms of Reference’, Mar. 2009; UN‐REDD Programme, ‘Rules of Procedure and Operational Guidance’, 10 Mar. 2009, pp. 5–6.

¹⁰⁹ FCPF, n. 92 above; UN-REDD, n. 92 above; UN-REDD Programme, ‘Strategic Framework 2016–2020’, May 2015; CIF, n. 98 above; CIF, n. 92 above.

¹¹⁰ UN-REDD, n. 92 above, para. 4.2; FCPF, n. 92 above, para. 11.1; CIF, n. 98 above, para. 25.

¹¹¹ Such as the attribution of emissions reductions with a view to provide REDD+payments: FCPF, n. 92 above, Art. 11.1(g) and (h).

¹¹² FCPF, n. 92 above, Art. 11.1(i).

¹¹³ The number of REDD+host countries is greater than the number of donors, but in the governing bodies both tend to have an equal number of seats and voting power. An exemption is the FCPF Assembly, composed of a broad membership, which can overturn some decisions taken by the FCPF’s governing body: FCPF, n. 92 above, Art. 10.2(a)(ii).

¹¹⁴ See, e.g., UN-REDD, n. 92 above, p. 33.

¹¹⁵ J. Winters & D. Sridhar, ‘Earmarking for Global Health: Benefits and Perils of the World Bank’s Trust Fund Model’ (2017) BMJ online articles, 358:j3394, available at: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.j3394.

¹¹⁶ As did the UN-REDD Programme: UN-REDD Programme, ‘Guidelines on Free, Prior and Informed Consent’, Jan. 2013, p. 4.

¹¹⁷ Similar to the World Bank’s Social and Environmental Safeguards: see J.E. Alvarez, ‘International Organizations and the Rule of Law: Challenges Ahead’, 10 June 2016, p. 23, available at: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers2.cfm?abstract_id=2793924.

¹¹⁸ UN-REDD Programme, ‘Report of the Eighth Policy Board Meeting’, Apr. 2012, p. 21.

¹¹⁹ Ibid.

¹²⁰ Ibid.; FCPF, ‘Incorporating Environmental and Social Considerations into the Process of Getting Ready for REDD’, Note FMT 2009–6, 15 Oct. 2009, available as a draft at: https://www.forestcarbonpartnership.org/sites/fcp/files/Documents/tagged/FCPF_en_soc_guidelines_10-15-09.pdf; but others have followed different procedures: see UN-REDD, n. 116 above.

¹²¹ See the description of the Social and Environmental Principles and Criteria (SEPC): UN-REDD, n. 118 above, pp. 20–2. Savaresi argues that these rules are no longer internal, but part of the obligations that will be undertaken by one of the parties: Savaresi, ‘The Legal Status and Role of REDD-Plus Safeguards’, n. 12 above, p. 135.

¹²² Larson, A. & Ribot, J., ‘The Poverty of Forestry Policy: Double Standards on an Uneven Playing Field’ (2007) 2(2) Sustainability Science, pp. 189–204 Google Scholar, at 189.

¹²³ Sikor, T. et al., ‘REDD-Plus, Forest Peoples’ Rights and Nested Climate Governance’ (2010) 20(3) Global Environmental Change, pp. 423–425 Google Scholar.

¹²⁴ Seymour, F., Forest, Climate Change, and Human Rights: Managing Risks and Trade Offs (CIFOR, 2008), pp. 13, 18Google Scholar.

¹²⁵ Griffiths, T. & Martone, F., Seeing ‘REDD’? Forests, Climate Change Mitigation and the Rights of Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities (Forest Peoples Programme, 2009), p. 6 Google Scholar.

¹²⁶ Decision 1/CP.16, n. 66 above, para. 72. Other safeguards contribute indirectly to enhance stakeholder participation, such as the consideration of international agreements.

¹²⁷ Decision 1/CP.16, n. 66 above, Appendix I, 2(c). UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), UNGA Resolution 61/295, 13 Sept. 2007, available at: http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/DRIPS_en.pdf.

¹²⁸ UNDRIP, ibid., Arts 19, 32.

¹²⁹ FCPF & UN-REDD Programme, ‘Guidelines on Stakeholder Engagement in REDD+Readiness’, 20 Apr. 2012.

¹³⁰ Including the FCPF’s Readiness Preparation Proposal template, available at: https://www.forestcarbonpartnership.org.

¹³¹ FCPF & UN-REDD, n. 129 above, para. 9(g).

¹³² Ibid.

¹³³ For the UN-REDD Programme: ibid., Annex 1.

¹³⁴ Ibid., para. 9(i).

¹³⁵ Ibid., para. 10.

¹³⁶ UN-REDD, n. 116 above, p. 9.

¹³⁷ World Bank, Environmental and Social Framework (World Bank, 2016)Google Scholar, para. 55.

¹³⁸ E.g., UN-REDD, n. 118 above, p. 20.

¹³⁹ FCPF, n. 92 above, Art. 3 (FCPF will ‘seek to ensure consistency with the UNFCCC Guidance on REDD’); UN-REDD, n. 109 above, para. 14 (focusing on coherence in REDD+support by ‘aligning country and global level support around the UNFCCC guidance’); e.g., CIF, n. 98 above, para. 9 (stating that ‘the FIP should draw upon the IPCC … while recognizing the evolving vocabulary within the UNFCCC process’).

¹⁴⁰ Savaresi, ‘The Legal Status and Role of REDD-Plus Safeguards’, n. 12 above, p. 148.

¹⁴¹ UN-REDD Programme, ‘Comparative Analysis of the UNFCCC REDD+Related Decisions and Other Multilateral and Bilateral Requirements to Access Results-Based Payments/Results-Based Finance for REDD+Results-Based Actions’, Technical Resource Series 5, Jan. 2017, p. 145 (arguing that [some of these additional prescriptions may be necessary] ‘in line with the operational modalities of the various financing entities’).

¹⁴² Geneva (Switzerland), 27 Jun. 1989, in force 5 Sept. 1991, available at: http://www.ilo.org/dyn/ normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C169.

¹⁴³ Government of Peru, Law N° 2978: Ley del Derecho a la Consulta Previa a los Pueblos Indígenas u Originarios, reconocidos en el Convenio 169 de la OIT (2011), Art. 15.

¹⁴⁴ Dann, n. 10 above, p. 372.

¹⁴⁵ Countries must complete a National Programme Document (NPD) for UN-REDD, a Readiness Preparation Proposal (R-PP) for the FCPF, and an Investment Plan for the FIP.

¹⁴⁶ Le Groupe-conseil baastel Itée, Nordic Agency for Development and Ecology & FCPF, ‘Final Evaluation Report’, June 2011, p. vii.

¹⁴⁷ Pacheco, P. et al., ‘The Recognition of Forest Rights in Latin America: Progress and Shortcomings of Forest Tenure Reforms’ (2012) 25(6) Society & Natural Resources, pp. 556–571 Google Scholar, at 563; see also FAO, ‘Leyes Forestales de América del Sur’ [‘Forestry Laws in South America], Apr. 2010, p. 54 (in Spanish).

¹⁴⁸ Sanhueza, J.E. & Antonissen, M., REDD+en América Latina: Estado Actual de las Estrategias de Reducción de Emisiones por Deforestación y Degradación Forestal (Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit, 2014), p. 27 Google Scholar.

¹⁴⁹ The grant approval procedure for FCPF funds took longer than the two-year average time required for the Global Environment Facility projects in some Latin American countries.

¹⁵⁰ The World Bank’s safeguards applicable to the FIP and the FCPF are described as mandatory, while the UN-REDD guidelines may seem less obligatory. However, both inform decision making and are ‘considered in the formulation, review … and monitoring of implementation’: UN-REDD, n. 118 above, pp. 20–1.

¹⁵¹ E.g., the UN-REDD programme establishes a national team together with the recipient country, which includes civil society and indigenous peoples’ representatives: UN-REDD, n. 109 above, p. 18.

¹⁵² Dann, n. 10 above, p. 360.

¹⁵³ Under the FCPF, e.g., countries that fail to fulfil agreed obligations lose all rights and privileges, including eligibility to become a member of the governing body: FCPF, n. 92 above, para. 6.5.

¹⁵⁴ K. Hite, ‘Adjudicating Disputes Across Scales: Global Administrative Law Considerations for REDD+’, in Voigt, n. 11 above, pp. 408–47, at 426.

¹⁵⁵ B. de Chazournes, ‘Policy Guidance and Compliance: The World Bank Operational Standards’, in Armstrong, n. 25 above, pp. 289–90. See also Dann, n. 10 above, p. 376; Savaresi, ‘The Legal Status and Role of REDD-Plus Safeguards’, n. 12 above, p. 135.

¹⁵⁶ Berman & Wessel, n. 26 above, p. 37.

¹⁵⁷ Walker, N., Intimations of Global Law (Cambridge University Press, 2015), p. 41 Google Scholar.

¹⁵⁸ Alvarez, n. 22 above, p. 246.

¹⁵⁹ Collaborative Partnership on Forests, ‘SFM and Primary Forests’, 2012, available at: http://www.cpfweb.org/32823-0b5a559f83d86c120294bcacc537703e.pdf.

¹⁶⁰ Sieder, R., ‘Pueblos Indígenas y Derecho(s) en América Latina’, in C. Rodríguez Garavito (coord.), El Derecho en América Latina (Siglo Veintiuno Editores, 2011), pp. 303–321 Google Scholar, at 303 (in Spanish).

¹⁶¹ Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), ‘Acceso a la Información, Participación y Justicia en Temas Ambientales en América Latina y el Caribe: Situación Actual, Perspectivas y Ejemplos de Buenas Prácticas’, Serie Medio Ambiente y Desarrollo No. 151, 2013, p. 52 (in Spanish).

¹⁶² E.g., Government of Ecuador, Ministerial Agreement 128 (2013) (setting procedures for consultation and negotiation with traditional communities for REDD+implementation).

¹⁶³ A.M. Larson et al., ‘Rights to Forests and Carbon under REDD+Initiatives in Latin America’, CIFOR Infobrief No. 33, Nov. 2010, p. 6, available at: https://www.cifor.org/library/3277/rights-to-forests-and-carbon-under-redd-initiatives-in-latin-america.

¹⁶⁴ The Interethnic Association for the Development of the Peruvian Rainforest (AIDESEP), unlike the Confederation of Amazonian Nationalities of Peru (CONAP), rejected REDD+implementation if it was not adapted to the priorities of indigenous peoples. AIDESEP required budget allocation to enhance land rights of indigenous peoples by, e.g., demarcating lands and recognizing indigenous practices: Zelli, F. et al., REDD in Peru: A Challenge to Social Inclusion and Multi-Level Governance (Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik, 2014), p. 46 Google Scholar.

¹⁶⁵ Ibid.

¹⁶⁶ Espinoza Llanos, R. & Feather, C., La Realidad de REDD+en Perú, entre el Dicho y el Hecho (Forest Peoples Programme, 2011), p. 21 (in Spanish)Google Scholar.

¹⁶⁷ Ibid.

¹⁶⁸ Ibid., p. 53. AIDESEP, ‘Se conformó la Mesa Nacional de REDD Indígena de Perú’, AIDESEP blog, 31 Jul. 2013, available at: http://www.aidesep.org.pe/se-conformo-la-mesa-nacional-de-redd-indigena-de-peru (in Spanish).

¹⁶⁹ See, e.g., Regional Government Madre de Dios, Regulation N° 018-2013-RMDD/CR (2013), available at: http://www.gruporeddperu.net/OrdenanzaregionalMADREDIOS.pdf.

¹⁷⁰ Zelli et al., n. 164 above, p. 47.

¹⁷¹ Similarly in Indonesia: D. Lee & T. Pistorius, ‘The Impacts of International REDD+Finance’, Climate and Land Use Alliance, Sept. 2015, p. 35, available at: http://www.climateandlandusealliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Impacts_of_International_REDD_Finance_Report_FINAL.pdf.

¹⁷² Recio, M.E., ‘Honduras Resource Tenure and Sustainable Landscapes Assessment: Tenure and Global Climate Change (TGCC)’, US Agency for International Development (USAID), Mar. 2015, pp. 1–26, available at: https://www.land-links.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/USAID_Land_Tenure_TGCC_Honduras_Assessment_En.pdf Google Scholar.

¹⁷³ En el marco del proceso REDD Gobierno y CONPAH firman acta sobre derechos indígenas y afrohondureños sobre su territorio, UNDP, 21 Jan. 2013, available at: http://www.hn.undp.org/content/honduras/es/home/presscenter/articles/2013/01/21/en-el-marco-del-proceso-redd-gobierno-y-conpah-firman-acta-sobre-derechos-ind-genas-y-afrohondure-os-sobre-su-territorio-.html (in Spanish).

¹⁷⁴ Agreement signed between SERNA, ICF, SEDINAFROH, INA and CONPAH, 9 Jan. 2013: see Recio, n. 172 above, pp. 3, 70.

¹⁷⁵ Recio, M.E., ‘Panama Resource Tenure and Sustainable Landscapes Assessment: Tenure and Global Climate Change (TGCC)’, USAID, Sept. 2014, pp. 1–22, available at: https://www.land-links.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/USAID_Land_Tenure_TGCC_Panama_Assessment_En.pdf Google Scholar.

¹⁷⁶ Coordinadora Nacional de Pueblos Indigenas De Panamá (COONAPIP), ‘Informe Final Elaboración de un Marco de Referencia sobre la Participación de los Pueblos Indígenas de la República de Panamá dentro del Contexto de la Propuesta de UN-REDD Panamá’, 12 Oct. 2009, Annex III, available at: http://www.forestcarbonpartnership.org/sites/forestcarbonpartnership.org/files/Documents/PDF/Jul2010/Informe_Final_COONAPIP_UN_REDD_HL.pdf.

¹⁷⁷ Recio, n. 175 above, pp. 3, 13.

¹⁷⁸ Ibid.

¹⁷⁹ Ibid.

¹⁸⁰ Ibid.

¹⁸¹ Ibid.

¹⁸² Similarly, see van Asselt & McDermott, n. 11 above, p. 63 (arguing that institutional complexity in REDD+can lead to a ‘benevolent jigsaw’ or ‘conflicting fragmentation’).

¹⁸³ Savaresi, ‘The Legal Status and Role of REDD-Plus Safeguards’, n. 12 above.

¹⁸⁴ Ibid., p. 135.

¹⁸⁵ Recio, n. 45 above; Savaresi, ‘A Glimpse into the Future of the Climate Regime’, n. 12 above, pp. 191–4.

¹⁸⁶ Wheatley, S., ‘A Democratic Rule of International Law’ (2011) 22(2) European Journal of International Law, pp. 525–548 Google Scholar, at 527.

¹⁸⁷ Cf. Pauwelyn, Wessel & Wouters, n. 42 above, pp. 743, 748.