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¹¹ Report on the State of Civil Society in the Russian Federation 2009 (Civic Chamber of the Russian Federation, 2010), pp. 18–9.

¹² Ibid., pp. 19–20.

¹³ Oldfield, J., Russian Nature: Exploring the Environmental Consequences of Societal Change (Ashgate, 2005).Google Scholar

¹⁴ Crotty & Rodgers, n. 5 above, at pp. 15–6.

¹⁵ In the early 1990s, the democratization of Russia fostered a decentralization of state power. Ten years later, however, the pendulum swung back in favour of ‘recentralization’: see Nysten-Haarala, S. & Kotilainen, J., ‘Institutions, Interest Groups and Governance of Natural Resources in Russia’, in Nysten-Haarala, S. (ed), The Changing Governance of Renewable Natural Resources in Northwest Russia (Ashgate, 2009), pp. 9–29, at 17–8.Google Scholar

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¹⁷ According to Art. 73 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, regulation of natural resources is under the joint jurisdiction of the federation and the regions.

¹⁸ Mol, n. 6 above, at pp. 230–1.

¹⁹ Biermann, F. et al. ., ‘Earth System Governance: A Research Framework’ (2010) 10(4) International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics, pp. 277–98.Google Scholar

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²¹ For more on public chambers see Federalnyj zakon N 32-FZ ot 04.04.2005 ‘Ob Obshhestvennoj palate Rossijskoj Federatsii’ (Federal Law No. 32-FZ of 4 Apr. 2005 ‘On the Civic Chamber of the Russian Federation’). Note that the terms ‘public chamber’ and ‘civil chamber’ have been used interchangeably on the website http://www.oprf.ru/en/about. For more on public councils see Ukaz Prezidenta Rossijskoj Federatsii N 842 ot 04.08.2006 ‘O poryadke obrazovaniya obshhestvennyh sovetov pri federalnyh ministerstvah’ (Decree of the President of the Russian Federation No. 842 of 4 Aug. 2006 ‘On a procedure for the formation of public councils at the federal ministries’).

²² Crotty & Rodgers, n. 5 above, at p. 16; Richter, n. 7 above.

²³ Grabosky, P., ‘Beyond Responsive Regulation: The Expanding Role of Non-State Actors in the Regulatory Process’ (2013) 7(1) Regulation & Governance, pp. 114–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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²⁷ Federalnyj Zakon 7-FZ ot 12.01.1996 ‘O nekommercheskih organizaciyah’ (Federal Law No. 7-FZ of 12 Jan. 1996 ‘On non-commercial organizations’); Federalnyj Zakon N18-Φ3 ot 19.05.1995 ‘Ob obshestvennyh ob’edineniyah’ (Federal Law No. 82-FZ of 19 May 1995 ‘On public associations’).

²⁸ Federal Law No. 7-FZ, ibid., Art. 15, pt 1.2; Federal Law No. 82-FZ, ibid., Art. 19.

²⁹ Federal Law No. 7-FZ, n. 27 above, Art. 32.

³⁰ Federalnyj zakon N 121-FZ ot 20.07.2012 ‘O vnesenii izmenenij v nekotorye zakonodatelnye akty Rossijskoj Federacii po regulirovaniju deyatelnosti nekommercheskih organizatsij vypolnyaushih funktsii inostrannyh agentov’ (Federal Law No. 121-FZ of 20 July 2012 ‘On introducing amendments to certain legislative acts of the Russian Federation regarding the regulation of activities of non-commercial organizations performing the function of foreign agents’).

³¹ In the Russian language, the expression ‘foreign agent’ has a negative connotation and it is often associated with a spy – i.e. an employee of the secret service of an enemy country who acts for money in the interests of the enemy country.

³² The term ‘coloured revolutions’ generally refers to changes of political regimes organized by civil society activists and NGOs using non-violent protests and other forms of social resistance. Examples of these revolutions in the post-Soviet countries are the Rose Revolution in Georgia in 2003, the Orange Revolution in Ukraine in 2004–05, and the Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan in 2005.

³³ Office of the President of Russia, ‘Interview for the German ARD’, 5 Apr. 2013 (Presidential interview), available at: http://eng.news.kremlin.ru/news/5216; BBC Russian, ‘Putin Reminded the FSB about “Foreign Interests” of NGO’, 14 Feb. 2013, available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/russian/russia/2013/02/130214_putin_speech_fsb_ngo.shtml (in Russian).

³⁴ Human Rights Watch, ‘Russia: Reject Proposed Changes to Rules on Foreign-Funded NGOs’, 5 and 12 July 2012, available at: http://www.hrw.org/news/2012/07/13/russia-reject-proposed-changes-rules-foreign-funded-ngos.

³⁵ Open letter from S. Lavrov, Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs, 18 Jan. 2006 (Lavrov letter), available at: http://www.mid.ru/bdomp/brp_4.nsf/e78a48070f128a7b43256999005bcbb3/2950a6a45eccca71c32570fb0028f609!OpenDocument. The same arguments have been used by President Putin and Prime Minister Medvedev in their interviews and publications, e.g, the Presidential interview, n. 33 above; the interview of the Russian Prime Minister, Dmitry Medvedev, to the agency ‘Agence France-Presse’ and the newspaper Le Figaro, 26 Nov. 2012, available at: http://government.ru/news/5919.

³⁶ Lavrov letter, ibid.; Presidential interview, n. 33 above.

³⁷ The material on the Summit is available at: http://www.g20civil.com/newsg20/1655.

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⁴⁰ Biermann et al., n. 19 above, at p. 283.

⁴¹ Müntel, G., ‘Closing the Gap to Europe? An Assessment of Change and Adaptation of Environmental Governance in the Russian Exclave of Kaliningrad’ (2006) 12(2) Contemporary Politics, pp. 139–55, at 146–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁴⁶ Breckenridge, L., ‘Nonprofit Environmental Organizations and the Restructuring of Institutions for Ecosystem Management’ (1998) 25(4) Ecology Law Quarterly, pp. 692–706, at 695.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Gray, Bebbington & Collison, n. 43 above, at p. 324.

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⁶² Conley, A. & Moote, M., ‘Evaluating Collaborative Natural Resource Management’ (2003) 16(5) Society and Natural Resources, pp. 371–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Fung, A. & Wright, E.O., ‘Countervailing Power in Empowered Participatory Governance’, in Fung, A. & Wright, E.O. (eds), Deepening Democracy: Institutional Innovations in Empowered Participatory Governance (Verso, 2003), pp. 259–91.Google Scholar

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⁶⁶ Firsova, A. & Taplin, R., ‘Australia and Russia: How Do Their Environmental Policy Processes Differ?’ (2009) 11 Environment, Development and Sustainability: A Multidisciplinary Approach to the Theory and Practice of Sustainable Development, pp. 407–26Google Scholar; Henry, L.A. & Douhovnikoff, V., ‘Environmental Issues in Russia’ (2008) 33 Annual Review of Environment and Resource, pp. 437–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁶⁸ Mol, n. 6 above; V. Zykov et al., Razvitie normativno-pravovogo regulirovaniya ohrany prirody i ekologicheskoj metrologii (The Development of Legal Regulation of Environmental Protection and Ecological Metrology) (IPK PFUR, 2005).

⁶⁹ E.g., Crotty & Rodgers, n. 5 above; L. Henry, Red to Green: Environmental Activism in Post-Soviet Russia (Cornell University Press, 2010).

⁷⁰ Henry, L., ‘Between Transnationalism and State Power: The Development of Russia’s Post-Soviet Environmental Movement’ (2010) 19(5) Environmental Politics, pp. 756–81Google Scholar; Henry, ibid.; Howard, M., ‘Postcommunist Civil Society in Comparative Perspective’ (2002) 10(3) Demokratizatsiya, pp. 285–305.Google Scholar

⁷¹ Henry, n. 69 above, at p. 7.

⁷² Ibid., p. 181. Henry has examined Russian environmental movements and developed the organizational typology of NGOs in Russia depending on their goals, strategies, tools, memberships, funding and relationships with the government.

⁷³ S. Nysten-Haarala & J. Kotilainen, ‘Institutions, Interest Groups and Governance of Natural Resources in Russia’, in Nysten-Haarala, n. 15 above, pp. 9–30, at 12.

⁷⁴ Henry, n. 69 above, pp. 48–9; L. Riabova & L. Ivanova, ‘Fishery Governance in Northwest Russia’, in Nysten-Haarala, n. 15 above, pp. 77–105, at 85.

⁷⁵ Ljubownikow, S., Crotty, J. & Rodgers, P.W, ‘The State and Civil Society in Post-Soviet Russia: The Development of a Russian-Style Civil Society’ (2013) 13(2) Progress in Development Studies, pp. 153–66.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ Henry, n. 69 above; Crotty, n. 67 above.

⁷⁷ Crotty, n. 67 above, at p. 93.

⁷⁸ Ibid., at pp. 85–6.

⁷⁹ J. Crotty & S.M. Hall, ‘Environmental Awareness and Sustainable Development in the Russian Federation’ (2012) Sustainable Development, FirstView online, doi: 10.1002/sd.1542; Howard, M., ‘The Weakness of Postcommunist Civil Society’ (2002) 13(1) Journal of Democracy, pp. 157–69.Google Scholar

⁸⁰ Crotty, n. 67 above, at pp. 87–8.

⁸¹ Howard, n. 70 above, at pp. 293–5, Crotty, J., ‘Managing Civil Society: Democratisation and the Environmental Movement in a Russian Region’ (2003) 36(4) Communist and Post-Communist Studies, pp. 489–508, at 490.Google Scholar

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⁸³ Henry, n. 69 above, pp. 50–3, Mol, n. 6 above; Crotty, J. & Rodgers, P., ‘The Continuing Reorganization of Russia’s Environmental Bureaucracy’ (2012) 59(4) Problems of Post-Communism, pp. 15–26, at 22.Google Scholar

⁸⁴ B. Kagarlitsky, ‘Perestroika: The Dialectic of Change’ (1988) 1 New Left Review, pp. 169–79, at 171, Zykov et al., n. 68 above, p. 25.

⁸⁵ Aarhus (Denmark), 25 June 1998, in force 30 Oct. 2001, available at: http://www.unece.org/env/pp/welcome.html.

⁸⁶ ENGO support for the ratification of the Aarhus Convention has varied over the years; there is currently significant backing for its ratification: see, e.g., ‘After Kremlin Wrecking Balls Have Leveled Environmental Legislation, the Aarhus Convention is a Last, Best Hope’, Bellona, 16 May 2013, available at: http://bellona.org/news/russian-human-rights-issues/access-to-information/2013-05-after-kremlin-wrecking-balls-have-leveled-environmental-legislation-the-aarhus-convention-is-a-last-best-hope.

⁸⁷ E.W.B. Zakariassen, ‘NGOs in Arkhangelsk – Coping in the Civil Sector after the 2006 NGO Law’, Report prepared for the Norwegian Barents Secretariat in Arkhangelsk and the University of Oslo, 2011, at p. 3.

⁸⁸ Henry, n. 69 above, at p. 48.

⁸⁹ Hemment, n. 67 above.

⁹⁰ Henry, n. 69 above, at p. 46.

⁹¹ Javeline, D. & Lindemann-Komarova, S., ‘A Balanced Assessment of Russian Civil Society’ (2010) 63(3) Journal of International Affairs, pp. 171–80, at 179.Google Scholar

⁹² Ibid., at pp. 137–8.

⁹³ Crotty, n. 67 above, at pp. 85–6.

⁹⁴ Ljubownikow, Crotty & Rodgers, n. 75 above, at p. 161.

⁹⁵ Arksey, H. & Knight, P.T., Interviewing for Social Scientists (Sage, 1999), at p. 5.Google Scholar

⁹⁶ Layder, D., Sociological Practice: Linking Theory and Social Research (Sage, 1998)Google Scholar; Yin, R.K., Case Study Research: Design and Methods (Sage, 2009).Google Scholar

⁹⁷ The total number of ENGOs in Russia is difficult to estimate. According to the Ministry of Justice, in December 2012 the total number of registered non-commercial organizations (NCO) was approximately 400,000 with 319 branches and representative offices of foreign NCOs. This includes religious organizations, state public–private associations, political parties and others. In contrast, the Civic (Public) Chamber estimated the overall number of registered NGOs to be 115,657. The Federal Statistics Service reports 108,736 NGOs. The number of ENGOs is even more difficult to estimate, because the official database of the Ministry of Justice does not contain this information. To trace ENGOs, we used the term ‘эколог’ as a filter (this is a root from Russian adjective ‘экологuческuие’ (ecological); we opted for the root instead of the whole word to make the search more effective. As a result, we identified 1,651 organizations. This number does not include environmental organizations that do not have ‘ecology’ or ‘ecological’ in their names; nor does it account for a large number of non-registered environmental movements and groups involved in environmental protection.

⁹⁸ As demonstrated by the preparations for the Sochi Winter Olympics in 2014.

⁹⁹ E.g., monitoring the migration of birds.

¹⁰⁰ Arksey & Knight, n. 95 above, at p. 21.

¹⁰¹ Tokunaga, M., ‘Environmental Governance in Russia: The “Closed” Pathway to Ecological Modernization’ (2010) 42(7) Environment and Planning, pp. 1686–704, at 1699.Google Scholar

¹⁰² Ibid.

¹⁰³ Interviews 1 and 16.

¹⁰⁴ Decision of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation of 21 Aug. 2013, N-642 AKPI13 (Reshenie Verhovnogo Suda RF ot 21 Aug. 2013, N AKPI13-642).

¹⁰⁵ Decision of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation of 22 Jan. 2004, N-642 AKPI13 (Reshenie Verhovnogo Suda RF ot 22 Jan. 2014, N GKPI03-1225).

¹⁰⁶ WWF blog on itar-tass.com, available at: http://www.itar-tass.com/c9/603107.html, interview 1.

¹⁰⁷ Federal Law No. 32-FZ, n. 21 above.

¹⁰⁸ Ukaz Prezidenta Rossijskoj Federatsii N 842 ot 04.08.2006 ‘O poryadke obrazovaniya obshhestvennyh sovetov pri federalnyh ministerstvah’ (Decree of the President of the Russian Federation No. 842 of 4 Aug. 2006 ‘On a procedure for the formation of public councils at the federal ministries’).

¹⁰⁹ The list of members is available at: http://www.president-sovet.ru/composition/?PAGEN_1=3.

¹¹⁰ Generally, ENGO representatives at councils attend meetings, participate in discussions, voice their positions on issues for discussion and give recommendations. Decisions are made by majority voting. They are not binding on the relevant state body. See, e.g., the provision on the public council under the MNR of the Russian Federation, available at: http://www.mnr.gov.ru/activities/list.php?part=1235&sphrase_id=323510.

¹¹¹ Interview 11, the Public Council on Environmental Issues at the Governor of Nizhny Novgorod region (available at: http://www.government-nnov.ru/?id=96916), or decisions of the Civic Chamber of Nizhegorodsky Region on Waste Management in Nizhny Novgorod (available at: http://www.palata-nn.ru/activity/results/0/17).

¹¹² The latest amendments to the Decree of the President on a procedure for the formation of public councils at the federal ministries were introduced on 20 May 2013. They are mostly of a procedural character; the councils were granted no greater power or influence.

¹¹³ Interview 6.

¹¹⁴ Interview 11.

¹¹⁵ E. Mamonova, ‘Sovetniki rabotajut za “korochki”. Struktura bolshinstva obshhestvennyh sovetov formalna’ (‘The Structure of most Public Councils is Formal’), Rossijskaja Gazeta, Moscow, 24 July 2012; V. Putin, ‘Demokratija i kachestvo gosudarstva’ (‘Democracy and the Quality of Government’), Kommersant, Moscow, 6 Feb. 2012.

¹¹⁶ ‘The Exit of WWF and Greenpeace from Public Council under the Federal Service for Supervision of Natural Resources’, available at: http://www.wwf.ru/about/positions/sovet (in Russian).

¹¹⁷ See Postanovlenie Pravitelstva Rossijskoj Federatsii N 159 ot 22.02.2012 ‘Ob utverzhdenii Pravil provedeniya obshchestvennogo obsuzhdeniya proektov federalnyh konstitutsionnyh zakonov i federalnyh zakonov’ (Resolution of the Government of the Russian Federation No. 159 of 22 Feb. 2012 ‘On approval of the Rules of the public discussion of draft federal constitutional laws and federal laws’).

¹¹⁸ Interviews 5 and 13.

¹¹⁹ Information on discussions about the Forest Policy of the Russian Federation is available at: http://www.wwf.ru/about/what_we_do/forests/forest_politics.

¹²⁰ Interview 5.

¹²¹ ‘Citizens Call for Russia to Join the UN Environmental Convention in 2013’, posted on the Race for the Baltic blog on 2 July 2012, available at: http://raceforthebaltic.com/blog/?p=777.

¹²² See Federalnyj Zakon N 7-FZ ot 10.01.2002‘Ob Ohrane okruzhayushej sredy’ (Federal Law No. 7-FZ of 10 Jan. 2002 ‘On environmental protection’), Art. 12; Federalnyj zakon N 174-FZ ot 23.11.1995 ‘Ob jekologicheskoj ekspertize’ (Federal Law No. 174-FZ of 23 Nov. 1995 ‘On ecological expertise’).

¹²³ Interviews 1, 6 and 11.

¹²⁴ Tokunaga, n. 101 above, at p. 1700.

¹²⁵ Another respondent reported that the state actively involved NGOs as expert partners in environmental planning processes. There are examples of successful engagement in drafting forest regulations regarding protection from fires. Regional ENGOs collaborate with a regional state agency in the water protection area and with education state bodies in the area of environmental education.

¹²⁶ Interview 11.

¹²⁷ Federalnyj zakon N 33-FZ ot 14.03.1995 ‘Ob osobo ohranyaemyh prirodnyh territoriyah’ (Federal Law No. 33-FZ of 14 Mar. 1995 ‘On specially protected natural areas’).

¹²⁸ In recognition of this fact, Art. 5 of the Law on specially protected natural areas (ibid.) enables NGOs to assist the state authorities in the creation and operation of protected areas.

¹²⁹ Interview 6.

¹³⁰ Hochstetler, n. 3 above.

¹³¹ The state ecological expertise (environmental assessment) is mandatory for this activity under Federal Law No. 174-FZ, n. 122 above.

¹³² WWF, ‘“Gazprom” has Declared 2013 as the Year of Ecology on the Eve of the Anniversary of the Death of “Kolskaya”’, 12 Dec. 2012, available at: http://www.itar-tass.com/c9/603107.html (in Russian).

¹³³ Human Rights Watch, ‘Russia: Environmental Activist Threatened with New Charges’, 21 Dec. 2012, available at: http://www.hrw.org/news/2012/12/20/russia-environmental-activist-threatened-new-charges.

¹³⁴ Interview 16.

¹³⁵ Interview 11.

¹³⁶ Federalnyj Zakon N 18-ΦЗ ot 10.01.2006 ‘O vnesenii izmenenij v nekotorye normativnye akty Rossijskoj Federatsii’ (Federal Law No. 18-ΦЗ of 10 Jan. 2006 ‘On introducing amendments into certain legislative acts of the Russian Federation’); Federalnyj zakon N 121-FZ ot 20.07.2012 ‘O vnesenii izmenenij v nekotorye zakonodatelnye akty Rossijskoj Federacii po regulirovaniju deyatelnosti nekommercheskih organizatsij vypolnyaushih funktsii inostrannyh agentov’ (Federal Law No. 121-FZ of 20 July 2012 ‘On introducing amendments to certain legislative acts of the Russian Federation regarding the regulation of activities of non-commercial organizations performing the function of foreign agents’).

¹³⁷ Rasporyazhenie Prezidenta RF N 115-rp ot 29.03.2013 goda ‘Ob obespechenii v 2013 godu gosudarstvennoj podderzhki nekommercheskih nepravitelstvennyh organizatsiy, realizuyushhih socialno znachimye proekty i uchastvuyushhih v razvitii institutov grazhdanskogo obshhestva’ (Presidential Decree No. 115-rp of 29 Mar. 2013 ‘On ensuring the 2013 state support for non-profit non-governmental organizations implementing social projects and participating in the development of civil society institutions’).

¹³⁸ This usually includes providing free office space and access to telecommunications.

¹³⁹ Interview 17.

¹⁴⁰ Interviews 9 and 11.

¹⁴¹ Report on the State of Civil Society in the Russian Federation 2012 (Civic Chamber of the Russian Federation, 2013), at p. 17.

¹⁴² Interview 12.

¹⁴³ C. Digges (trans.), ‘NGOs Issue Statement on the Bill Requiring Them to Register as “Foreign Agents”, Bellona, 10 July 2012, available at: http://www.bellona.org/articles/articles_2012/NGOs_statement.

¹⁴⁴ Interview 1.

¹⁴⁵ Interview 18.

¹⁴⁶ Interview 6.

¹⁴⁷ Interview 5.

¹⁴⁸ Interviews 5, 6 and 11.

¹⁴⁹ These forms and instructions are available at: http://minjust.ru/nko/otchetnost.

¹⁵⁰ Information on the Bellona Foundation is available at: http://www.bellona.org.

¹⁵¹ ‘The President Demanded the Prosecutor General’s Office to Review the Situation with regard to the Implementation of the Law on NGOs’, 9 July 2013, available at: http://www.itar-tass.com/c1/801307.html (in Russian); and Statement of the Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation, 10 July 2013, available at http://genproc.gov.ru/smi/news/genproc/news-83567 (in Russian).

¹⁵² Greenpeace Russia, ‘Statement on the Recognition of Environmental Organizations “Foreign Agents”’, 30 Apr. 2013, available at: http://www.greenpeace.org/russia/ru/news/2013/30-04-Environmentalists_called_foreign_agents (in Russian); C. Digges, ‘Update: Raid on Bellona’s St Petersburg Offices Casts Uncertain Shadow over Organization’s Future’, Bellona, 20 Mar. 2013, available at: http://www.bellona.org/articles/articles_2013/bellona_ngo_raid.

¹⁵³ Ibid.

¹⁵⁴ Federal Law No. 7-FZ, n. 27 above, Art. 2, para. 6.

¹⁵⁵ Interview 11.

¹⁵⁶ In this study a broader meaning of ‘international ENGO’ is applied to a group of internationally recognized and influential ENGOs with offices in various countries and which do not depend on domestic funding. Examples of these NGOs are WWF Russia, Greenpeace Russia, and Bellona. These ENGOs may be registered with the Ministry of Justice as non-commercial organizations, as offices of foreign organizations, or national (domestic) organizations.

¹⁵⁷ Crotty, n. 67 above, at p. 95.

¹⁵⁸ Interview 18.

¹⁵⁹ L. Smith-Spark, ‘Greenpeace Vigil for “Arctic 30” Held in Russia, as Dutch File Legal Case’, CNN International, 5 Oct. 2013, available at: http://edition.cnn.com/2013/10/05/world/europe/russia-greenpeace-netherlands.

¹⁶⁰ Interview 6; Crotty, n. 67 above, at p. 91.

¹⁶¹ Interview 11.

¹⁶² Financial and in-kind support from larger NGOs usually included provision of premises, computers, communication and other facilities required for normal operation. Larger NGOs organize for local NGOs seminars on skills training, such as leadership, fundraising techniques, management and legal knowledge.

¹⁶³ Yanitsky, O., ‘The Value Shift of the Russian Greens’ (2006) 15(2) International Review of Sociology/Revue Internationale de Sociologie, pp. 363–80.Google Scholar

¹⁶⁴ Hemment, n. 67 above.

¹⁶⁵ Interview 1.

¹⁶⁶ Interviews 15 and 16.

¹⁶⁷ For more effective influence in forming environmental policy, in some cases networking requires formal institutionalization in the form of associations of various NGOs. The Socio-Ecological Union (SEU) is an example of an association of different environmental NGOs, groups and movements. It was established in 1987 on the basis of the Druzhina movement to enhance the capacity of various environmental movements and groups united by a common mission – to maintain Earth’s diversity of nature and culture. This association is still active; it has international status and operates according to principles of horizontal networking, the equality of its members, and sharing of knowledge and resources.

¹⁶⁸ Dvizhenie v zashitu Khimkinskogo lesa (the Khimkinsky Forest Movement) is a Russian ENGO based in Khimki, Moscow Region; see: http://www.ecmo.ru.

¹⁶⁹ Hochstetler, n. 3 above, at p. 367.

¹⁷⁰ Numerous attacks and threats by the police and arrests of activists were filmed and recorded by the activists and independent journalists; more information is available at: http://www.ecmo.ru/main/abuse_en.

¹⁷¹ One such NGO was Sherpa, a French non-profit legal organization that aims to protect and defend the victims of economic crimes: see: http://www.asso-sherpa.org. See also G. Tumanov, I. Buranov & A. Miklashevskaya, ‘The Highway from Moscow to St Petersburg was Brought to France’, Kommersant, 23 June 2013, available at: http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/2219249?themeid=1209.

¹⁷² S.E. Mendelson, From Assistance to Engagement: A Model for a New Era in US–Russian Civil Society Relations (Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2009), at p. 2.

¹⁷³ Federal Law N 7-FZ, n. 27 above, Art. 32 as amended in 2006 and 2012.

¹⁷⁴ Interviews 9, 11 and 13.

¹⁷⁵ Although not discussed in detail here, a final action included ecological and scientific expertise – participation in public environmental expertise, monitoring the state of nature, collaboration with scientists and research centres.

¹⁷⁶ Interviews 1 and 6.

¹⁷⁷ Interview 1.

¹⁷⁸ Interview 6.

¹⁷⁹ Holley, Gunningham & Shearing, n. 63 above, at p.176.

¹⁸⁰ Holley, C. & Sinclair, D., ‘Deliberative Participation, Environmental Law and Collaborative Governance: Insights from Surface and Groundwater Studies’ (2013) 30(1) Environmental and Planning Law Journal, pp. 32–55 at 51–2.Google Scholar

¹⁸¹ The most recent reference on the MNR site to the work on ratification of the Convention was on 25 Nov. 2011, available at: http://www.mnr.gov.ru/news/detail.php?ID=127881&sphrase_id=326083.

¹⁸² Mol, n. 6 above, at p. 236.

¹⁸³ One possible approach would be the provision of ‘block grants’: see D. Bayley & C. Shearing, ‘The Future of Policing’ (1996) 30(3) Law and Society Review, pp 585–606.

¹⁸⁴ Rasporyazhenie Prezidenta RF N 216-rp ot 03.05.2012 ‘Ob obespechenii v 2012 godu gosudarstvennoj podderzhki nekommercheskih nepravitel’stvennyh organizacij, uchastvuyushhih v razvitii institutov grazhdanskogo obshhestva’ (Order of the President of the Russian Federation No. 216-rp of 3 May 2012 ‘On ensuring the 2012 state support for non-profit non-governmental organizations participating in the development of institutions of civil society’).

¹⁸⁵ Interviews 9, 11 and 13.

¹⁸⁶ Douma, W. & Mucklow, F. (eds), Environmental Finance and Socially Responsible Business in Russia (T.M.C Asser Press, 2009).Google Scholar

¹⁸⁷ Nysten-Haarala & Kotilainen, n. 15 above, at p. 12.

¹⁸⁸ See Statement by EU High Representative, Catherine Ashton, on the situation of NGOs in the Russian Federation, 26 Mar. 2013, 170/13, available at: http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_Data/docs/pressdata/EN/foraff/136573.pdf; and the last meeting of G20 Civil Summit in 2013 where the issues of NGO legislation were raised by Russian and foreign participants, available at: http://civil20.org/newsg20/1655 and http://civil20.org/newsg20/1952.

¹⁸⁹ Ibid.

¹⁹⁰ Hochstetler, n. 3 above.

¹⁹¹ Dellas, Pattberg & Betsill, n. 4 above.

¹⁹² Braithwaite, n. 1, above.

¹⁹³ Dellas, Pattberg & Betsill, n. 4 above.

¹⁹⁴ Hochstetler, n. 3 above, at pp. 367–8.

¹⁹⁵ Ibid.

¹⁹⁶ Dellas, Pattberg & Betsill, n. 4 above, at p. 93; Hochstetler, n. 3 above, at pp. 364–9.

¹⁹⁷ Hochstetler, n. 3 above, at p. 366.

¹⁹⁸ Ibid., at p. 364.

¹⁹⁹ Ibid., at p. 369.

²⁰⁰ Ibid.

²⁰¹ Dellas, Pattberg & Betsill, n. 4 above, at p. 95.