1 Stepsis, Robert and Rand, Richard, ‘Contrast and Conversion in Cynewulf's Elene,’ Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 70 (1969) 273–282, study the contrasting images and their relationship to the theme of conversion. Gardner, John, ‘Cynewulf's Elene: Sources and Structure,’ Neophilologus 54 (1970) 65–76, argues that Cynewulf knew the art of translation as it was taught by the later grammarians and that he used diverse sources for an original purpose. He describes Elene's theme as ‘the contrast between the universal Christian ethic and the so-called heroic ethic’ (66) and analyzes the poem in these terms. Thomas Hill, D., ‘Sapiential Structure and Figural Narrative in the Old English “Elene,” ” Traditio 27 (1971) 159–177, analyzes the figural patterns in the poem. He argues that Elene's debate with the Jews represents the conflict between the letter and the spirit and that Judas is portrayed as a type of the unbelieving Jews. He also discusses the eschatological allusions in the poem. ‘If these suggestions seem generally tenable,’ Hill concludes, ‘Elene emerges as a more sophisticated and aesthetically satisfactory poem than critics have realized’ (177). Because I was already in the process of submitting this study when Professor Hill's article appeared, I have not inserted references to relevant points in his arguments. Since Professor Hill has read my essay, however, I have had the opportunity to make use of his penetrating questions. I am indebted to him for his most helpful suggestions.Google Scholar

2 Studies in the History of Old English Literature (Oxford 1953) 14.Google Scholar

3 The best brief discussion of the sources is found in the Introduction to the most recent edition: <e>P. Gradon, O. E., ed., Cynewulf's Elene (London 1958) 15–22. A composite text of the known versions of the legend appears in Ferdinand Holthausen's edition: Cynewulfs Elene (4th ed. Heidelberg, 1936).Google Scholar

4 The themes cited in the text appear throughout the Pauline writings, but see for example Rom. 6.1–19; 7.1–6; 8.2,21; 10.4; 13.12–14; 16.26; 1 Cor. 1.17–2.7; 12.27–31; 15.3; 2 Cor. 4.5; 5.20; 6.14–16; Eph. 1.22–23; 4.16,22; 5.29–30; Heb. 8.5; 10.1; Gal. 5.1,13; 13.24; Col. 1.12–14; 3.9.Google Scholar

5 Delehaye, Hippolyte, The Legends of the Saints , <e>trans. Donald Attwater (New York 1962) 3; Leclercq, Jean, The Love of Learning and the Desire for God: A Study of Monastic Culture, <e>trans. Catharine Misrahi (New York 1961) 194; Charles Jones, W., Saints’ Lives and Chronicles in Early England (Ithaca, N. Y. 1947) 73 et passim; Hall Gerould, Gordon, Saints’ Legends (New York 1916) 13.trans.+Donald+Attwater+(New+York+1962)+3;+Leclercq,+Jean,+The+Love+of+Learning+and+the+Desire+for+God:+A+Study+of+Monastic+Culture,+trans.+Catharine+Misrahi+(New+York+1961)+194;+Charles+Jones,+W.,+Saints’+Lives+and+Chronicles+in+Early+England+(Ithaca,+N.+Y.+1947)+73+et+passim;+Hall+Gerould,+Gordon,+Saints’+Legends+(New+York+1916)+13.>Google Scholar

6 Levison, Wilhelm, England and the Continent in the Eighth Century (Oxford 1946) 53–93 et passim; F. Stenton, M., Anglo-Saxon England (2nd ed. Oxford 1947) 166–176; Godfrey, John, The Church in Anglo-Saxon England (Cambridge 1962) 220–253. Crawford, S. J.'s early description of the pervasive missionary activity remains one of the best; see Anglo-Saxon Influence on Western Christendom: 600–800 (Oxford 1933) 32–33.Google Scholar

7 <e>Eduard Schwartz and Theodor Mommsen, eds., Eusebius Werke (Die griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten drei Jahrhunderte 9.2; Leipzig 1903–1909) 1–3; the Greek text is edited by Schwartz and the Latin of Rufinus by Mommsen. Cassiodorus, Historia ecclesiastica tripartita, <e>ed. Jacob, W. and Hanslik, R. (CSEL 71; Vienna 1952).Eduard+Schwartz+and+Theodor+Mommsen,+eds.,+Eusebius+Werke+(Die+griechischen+christlichen+Schriftsteller+der+ersten+drei+Jahrhunderte+9.2;+Leipzig+1903–1909)+1–3;+the+Greek+text+is+edited+by+Schwartz+and+the+Latin+of+Rufinus+by+Mommsen.+Cassiodorus,+Historia+ecclesiastica+tripartita,+ed.+Jacob,+W.+and+Hanslik,+R.+(CSEL+71;+Vienna+1952).>Google Scholar

8 Augustine, , De libero arbitrio 3.18 (CCL 29 pt. 2.2) 306: ‘Id est autem ut qui sciens reete non facit amittat scire quid rectum sit, et qui recte facere cum posset noluit amittat posse cum uelit. Nam sunt re uera omni peccanti animae duo ista poenalia, ignorantia et difficultas. Ex ignorantia dehonestat error, ex difficultate cruciatus adfligit.’Google Scholar

9 Augustine, , Enarrationes in Psalmos 32, serm. 2.15 (CCL 38) 265: ‘Amant enim omnes beatitudinem; et ideo peruersi sunt homines quia mali uolunt esse, miseri nolunt; et cum sit malitiae indiuidua comes miseria, ista peruersi non solum mali esse uolunt, et miseri nolunt quod fieri non potest; sed ideo uolunt mali esse, ne miseri sint.’Google Scholar

10 Graetz, Heinrich, History of the Jews (Philadelphia 1891) I 396; Elias Bickerman, J., ‘The Historical Foundations of Postbiblical Judaism,’ in The Jews: Their History, Culture, and Religion, ed. Finkelstein, Louis 3rd ed. (New York 1949) I 97–99; Ch. Guignebert, , The Jewish World in the Time of Jesus, <e>trans. Hooke, S. H. (London 1939) 67–73.trans.+Hooke,+S.+H.+(London+1939)+67–73.>Google Scholar

11 The theme is treated in many sources, but an especially useful study in English is Wolfgang Seiferth, S., Synagogue and Church in the Middle Ages: Two Symbols in Art and Literature , <e>trans. Lee Chadeayne and Paul Gottwald (New York 1970).trans.+Lee+Chadeayne+and+Paul+Gottwald+(New+York+1970).>Google Scholar

12 A Critical History of Old English Literature (New York 1965) 116.Google Scholar

13 See V. Fleming's, John discussion of the Dreamer's call to spiritual crucifixion in ‘ “The Dream of the Rood” and Anglo-Saxon Monasticism,’ Traditio 22 (1966) 55 ff.Google Scholar

14 ‘Saints’ Lives,’ in Continuations and Beginnings: Studies in Old English Literature, <e>ed. Eric Gerald Stanley (London 1966) 46–47.ed.+Eric+Gerald+Stanley+(London+1966)+46–47.>Google Scholar

15 Unless otherwise noted, all references to Old English poetry are to The Anglo-Saxon Poetic Records, <e>ed. Krapp, G. P. and Dobbie, E. V. K. (New York 1931–53) 6 vols. The text of Elene appears in ASPR 2, The Vercelli Book, <e>ed. George Philip Krapp, 66–102. Unless otherwise indicated, the translations are my own.ed.+Krapp,+G.+P.+and+Dobbie,+E.+V.+K.+(New+York+1931–53)+6+vols.+The+text+of+Elene+appears+in+ASPR+2,+The+Vercelli+Book,+ed.+George+Philip+Krapp,+66–102.+Unless+otherwise+indicated,+the+translations+are+my+own.>Google Scholar

16 <e>Kleist, James A., trans., The Didache, The Epistle of Barnabas, The Epistles and the Martyrdom of St. Polycarp, The Fragments of Papias, The Epistle to Diognetus (Ancient Christian Writers 6; Westminster, Md. 1948). See Kleist's, Introductions to the various translations; also Altaner, Berthold, Patrology, <e>trans. Hilda Graef, C. (London 1960) 50–61.Kleist,+James+A.,+trans.,+The+Didache,+The+Epistle+of+Barnabas,+The+Epistles+and+the+Martyrdom+of+St.+Polycarp,+The+Fragments+of+Papias,+The+Epistle+to+Diognetus+(Ancient+Christian+Writers+6;+Westminster,+Md.+1948).+See+Kleist's,+Introductions+to+the+various+translations;+also+Altaner,+Berthold,+Patrology,+trans.+Hilda+Graef,+C.+(London+1960)+50–61.>Google Scholar

17 The theme of the Two Ways retains a prominent place in the early literature. For example, those chapters in the Didache which instruct in the Way of Life and the Way of Death are paraphrased in Book Seven of the Apostolic Constitutions, a fourth-century collection of ecclesiastical regulations. In chapters 18–20 of the Epistle of Barnabas, written probably between a.d. 70 and 180, the theme takes the form of the Way of Life and the Way of Darkness. The question of the indebtedness of these manuals to the Didache vs the possibility of a common source for all is not of concern here.Google Scholar

18 F. Vokes, E., The Riddle of the Didache (New York 1938) 66, 83–85; Siegmund, Albert, Die Überlieferung der griechischen christlichen Literatur in der lateinischen Kirche bis zum zwölften Jahrhundert (Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Benediktiner-Akademie 5; Munich 1949) 65.Google Scholar

19 E. Whitaker, C., The Baptismal Liturgy: An Introduction to Baptism in the Western Church (London [1965]) 34; see also Whitaker's chapter ‘The Catechumenate’ 29–37, and Jungmann, A. Josef, ‘Baptism and Preparation for Baptism,’ in The Early Liturgy to the Timeof Gregory the Great, <e>trans. Francis Brunner, A. (Notre Dame 1959) 74–86.trans. Francis Brunner, A. (Notre Dame 1959) 74–86.' href=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=E.+Whitaker,+C.,+The+Baptismal+Liturgy:+An+Introduction+to+Baptism+in+the+Western+Church+(London+[1965])+34;+see+also+Whitaker's+chapter+‘The+Catechumenate’+29–37,+and+Jungmann,+A.+Josef,+‘Baptism+and+Preparation+for+Baptism,’+in+The+Early+Liturgy+to+the+Timeof+Gregory+the+Great,+trans.+Francis+Brunner,+A.+(Notre+Dame+1959)+74–86.>Google Scholar

20 Daniélou, Jean, The Lord of History , <e>trans. Nigel Abercrombie (Chicago 1958) 259.trans.+Nigel+Abercrombie+(Chicago+1958)+259.>Google Scholar

21 <e>R. Morris, ed., The Blickling Homilies of the Tenth Century (EETS 58; London 1874) 27–39; <e>Benjamin Thorpe, ed., The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church: The Sermones Catholici, or Homilies of Ælfric (London 1844) I 166–181.R.+Morris,+ed.,+The+Blickling+Homilies+of+the+Tenth+Century+(EETS+58;+London+1874)+27–39;+Benjamin+Thorpe,+ed.,+The+Homilies+of+the+Anglo-Saxon+Church:+The+Sermones+Catholici,+or+Homilies+of+Ælfric+(London+1844)+I+166–181.>Google Scholar

22 ‘Old English Poetic Diction and the Interpretation of The Wanderer, The Seafarer and The Penitent's Prayer,’ Anglia 73 (1956) 425–426.Google Scholar

23 Ibid. 452.Google Scholar

24 ‘The Signed Poems of Cynewulf’ (Diss. Princeton University 1956) 82–83; also notes on 245–249. Muinzer explains the restoration of line 629 by arguing that ‘Ms mode is a scribal corruption of modige, hardly an impossible error. Very likely, the conservative modige was written modie, thus making it easy for some copyist to confuse this form with mode. The restored form is from modigan.’ For other readings of this passage, see Krapp, 's notes 142; also Gradon 50.Google Scholar

25 <e>Gordon, I. L., ed., The Seafarer (London 1960) 34 note on line 11.Gordon,+I.+L.,+ed.,+The+Seafarer+(London+1960)+34+note+on+line+11.>Google Scholar

26 Specific instructions for fasting appear in treatises on Baptism, such as the Didache (7.4) and the Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus. See Whitaker, C. E., trans., Documents of the Baptismal Liturgy (London 1960) 4.Google Scholar

27 Evans, Ernest, ed. and trans., Tertullian's, Homily on Baptism 20 (London 1964) 40: ‘Ingressuros baptismum orationibus crebris, ieiuniis et geniculationibus et pervigiliis orare oportet, et cum confessione omnium retro delictorum, ut exponant etiam baptismum Ioannis.’ Augustine, Sermo 216 10 (PL 38.1082): ‘Paratus est ille compuncto et redeunti panem gaudii erogare; si non dissimules nec differas pro fuga tua flebiliter aerumnosus orare. In tantis ergo catervis molestantium induite vos cilicio, et humiliate in jejunio animam vestram. Redditur humilitati quod superbiae denegatum lest.’ In the same sermon Augustine describes the battle which the catechumens must wage against Satan: ‘Hoc est nunc opus vestrum, et hic labor vester. Digna in eum nos suis nequitiis maledicta congerimus: vestra vos potius aversione ac pia renuntiatione gloriosissimum ei certamen indicite’ 6 (PL 38.1080).Google Scholar

28 Kumar Das, Satyendra, Cynewulf and the Cynewulf Canon (Calcutta 1942) 215, is surely correct when he says that ðæt soÐ of line 708a ‘refers to the Truth of Christianity, which throughout the poem connects itself with the idea of the Crucifixion and of the Rood.’Google Scholar

29 Daniélou, , Lord of History 7, 267–268, and The Bible and the Liturgy (Notre Dame 1956) 37, 262; Foster Hopper, Vincent, Medieval Number Symbolism (New York 1938) 71, 77, and 85. For a discussion of Sunday as the ‘eighth day,’ see Rordorf, Willy, Sunday, <e>trans. Graham, A. K. A. (Philadelphia 1968) 275–285.trans.+Graham,+A.+K.+A.+(Philadelphia+1968)+275–285.>Google Scholar

30 Enarrationes in Psalmos 146.14 (CCL 40.2132): ‘Incipite Domino in confessione. Hinc incipe, si uis peruenire ad intellegentiam perspicuam ueritatis. … Te prius accusa; te accusato, Deum lauda. Inuoca quem nondum nosti, ut ueniat et sciatur: non ut ipse ueniat, sed ut te ad se perducat.’Google Scholar

31 See, for example, De quantitate animae 35.79 (PL 32.1079; De doctrina christiana 2.7.9–11 (CCL 32.36–38); Confessiones 10.8–26, <e>ed. Knoll, P. (CSEL 33.1; Vienna 1896) 234–255.ed.+Knoll,+P.+(CSEL+33.1;+Vienna+1896)+234–255.>Google Scholar

32 Schaar, Claes, Critical Studies in the Cynewulf Group (Lund Studies in English 17; Lund 1949) 122, comments on the chiasmic structure of the prayer and describes lines 772–783 as ‘an outstanding example of the elaborateness of Cynewulf's art.’Google Scholar

33 Several visual details find their counterpart in illustrations from the Junius manuscript; see Israel Gollancz, Sir, ed., The Caedmon Manuscript of Anglo-Saxon Biblical Poetry (Oxford 1927). For example, the scene in lines 739b-742, in which the Lord is surrounded by six-winged angels, is similar in some respects to the frontispiece illustration, which shows the Deity surrounded by six-winged cherubim. The details of the angels who guard Paradise with a flaming sword (lines 755b-759a) appear in an illustration on p. 46, which shows an angel with a sword guarding Paradise while Adam and Eve depart. But perhaps the most interesting parallel between the visual description of the scene in the prayer and illustrations in the Junius MS is the spatial relationship between heaven and hell. Several illustrations are divided horizontally into two parts. For example, the illustration on p. 17 shows the enthroned Deity (surrounded by cherubim) occupying the upper half of the picture while the lower half shows Satan in bondage; and in the frontispiece illustration mentioned above, the Deity is pictured above and Chaos below. While the poet establishes a thematic transition (lines 759b-762a) from his scene in heaven to the one in hell (lines 762b-771), the total effect of the description is similar to that created in these horizontally divided illustrations.Google Scholar

34 In De catechizandis rudibus 6.10 (CCL 46.131), Augustine says that the narratio should begin ‘ab eo quod fecit deus omnia bona ualde, et perducenda, ut diximus, usque ad praesentia tempora ecclesiae. …’Google Scholar

35 Arthur Brodeur, G., The Art of Beowulf (Berkeley 1959) 261, says that goldhord is used with ‘striking inappropriateness’ to denote the Cross; but perhaps the compound is a striking metaphor which not only signifies Cynewulf's attitude toward the Cross—which is sustained through the poem (e.g., wuldres wynbeam, line 843a, and sigebeam numerous times) — but, without modifying that tone, connotes the redemptive merits gained by Christ's death on the Cross.Google Scholar

36 See the early form in The Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus, quoted in Whitaker, Documents of the Baptismal Liturgy 5. The form of the renunciation changed early; see Ambrose, 's discussion of the revised form in De sacramentis, quoted in Whitaker 118, and the form as it appears in The Gelasian Sacramentary, quoted in Whitaker 173.Google Scholar

37 I have altered Krapp's punctuation by removing parentheses from lines 935 and 938 and by beginning a sentence at line 935b.Google Scholar

38 Ed. cit. 146. Gradon also retains the MS uncyÐig and says that ‘if the prefix is privative or pejorative, the translation may be “how he became, in so short a time, and ignorant or wicked as he was, so full of faith” ” (61).Google Scholar