Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dlnhk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T08:33:06.344Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Twentieth-Century Influences on the Development in Britain of Services for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2018

Christopher J. Wardle
Christopher J. Wardle*
Affiliation:
Inner March Farm, Clyst Hydon, Near Cullompton, Devon EX15 2NF, formerly Clinical Director, Dryden Clinics and Department of Child, Family and Adolescent Psychiatry, Exeter, and Clinical Tutor, Postgraduate Medical School, University of Exeter and South-West Region
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Modern comprehensive multidisciplinary mental-health services for children and adolescents have four origins: psychology from 1890, psychoanalysis from 1906, the child-guidance movement from 1920, and the children's departments of psychiatric teaching hospitals from 1930. Post-war changes in society and reform, especially the NHS Act 1946, contributed to rapid development of services and an increasingly wide range of sophisticated therapeutic interventions; professional and interdisciplinary associations and trans-Atlantic exchange were also influential. In the last three decades a succession of official inquiries, reports, legislation and reorganisations have had a damaging effect. Children and their services have been prey to causes célèbres, fashion and the exaggerated fads and foibles of the media and politicians; they have thrived best when society and their carers were tolerant, and loving, sought good qualities to augment, not evil to exorcise, and succeeded in balancing structure and control with flexibility and freedom to grow. Planners should review the past before acting.

Type
Papers
Information
The British Journal of Psychiatry , Volume 159 , Issue 1 , July 1991 , pp. 53 - 68
Copyright
Copyright © 1991 The Royal College of Psychiatrists 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abercrombie, M. L. J. (1972) Parent staff communications in a children's unit. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 65, 335–338.Google Scholar
Adler, A. (1907) (trans. 1917) Study of Organ Inferiority and Its Psychical Compensation a Contribution to Clinical Medicine. New York: Nervous and Mental Publication Company.Google Scholar
Allchin, W. H. (1969) A living myth: the problems of communication within a community. In Adolescence: Psychological Perspectives. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Apley, J. & Ounsted, C. (1982) One Child. London: Heinemann/Spastics International Medical Publications.Google Scholar
Barker, P. (1974) History. In The Residential Psychiatric Treatment of Children (ed. Barker, P.). London: Crosby Lockwood Staples. Bandura, A. (1961) Psychotherapy as a learning process. Psychological Bulletin, 58, 144–159.Google Scholar
Barker, P. (1969) Principals of Behaviour Modification. New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston.Google Scholar
Barton, R. (1959) Institutional Neurosis. Bristol: Wright.Google Scholar
Bell, J. E. (1962) Recent advances in family therapy. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 3, 1–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bentovim, A. & Lansdown, R. (1973) Day hospitals and centres for disturbed children in the London area. British Medical Journal, iv, 536–538.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bettelheim, B. (1950) Love is not Enough. Illinois: Free press of Glencoe.Google Scholar
Berg, I., Butler, D. & Hall, G. (1976) The outcome of adolescent school phobia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 128, 80–85.Google Scholar
Berg, I., Consterdine, M., Hollin, R., et al (1978) A randomly controlled trial of two court procedures in truancy. Criminology, 18, 232–234.Google Scholar
Beroer, M. & Taylor, E. (1986) Introduction. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 27, 717.Google Scholar
Bierer, J. & Evans, R. I. (1969) Innovations in Social Psychiatry. London: Avenue Publishing.Google Scholar
Black, D. (1987) The future of child guidance. Progress in Child Health, 3, 155–163.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1951) Mental Care and Mental Health. Geneva: WHO.Google Scholar
Bradley, C. (1936) A children's hospital for neurological and behaviour disorders. Journal of the American Psychiatric Association, 107, 650–652.Google Scholar
Brett, G. S. (1921) A History of Psychology. London: Allen & Unwin.Google Scholar
Bridgeland, M. (1971) Pioneer Work with Maladjusted Children. London: Staples Press.Google Scholar
Brown, J. A. C. (1961) Freud and the Post-Freudians. London: Penguin Books.Google Scholar
Bruggen, P., Byng-Hall, J. & Pitt-Aitkens, T. (1973) The reason for admission as the focus of work for an adolescent unit. British Journal of Psychiatry, 123, 319–329.Google Scholar
Bruggen, P., Brilliant, B. & Ide, S. (1982) Secrets and gossip: staff communication. Bulletin of the Royal College of Psychiatrists, 6, 117–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burt, C. (1925) The Young Delinquent. London: University of London Press.Google Scholar
Butler-Sloss, Lord Justice E. (1988) Report of the Enquiry into Child Abuse in Cleveland in 1987. London: HMSO.Google Scholar
Cameron, H. C. (1918) The Nervous Child. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Cameron, K. (1949) A psychiatric inpatient department for children. Journal of Mental Science, 95, 560–566.Google Scholar
Cameron, K. (1956) Past and present trends in child psychiatry. Journal of Mental Science, 102, 599–603.Google Scholar
Clarke, A. M. & Clarke, A. D. B. (1986) Thirty years of child psychology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 27, 719–759.Google Scholar
Connell, P. H. (1961) The day hospital approach in child psychiatry. Journal of Mental Science, 107, 969–977.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Court, S. D. M. (1976) Fit for The Future: Report of the Committee on Child Health Services. London: HMSO.Google Scholar
Crichton-Browne, J. (1860) Psychical diseases of early life. Journal of Mental Science, 6, 284–320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crutcher, R. (1943) Child psychiatry: the history of its development. Psychiatry, 6, 191–201.Google Scholar
Curtis, M. (1954) Report of the Care of Children Committee, cmd 6922. London: HMSO.Google Scholar
Department of Education and Science (1968) Psychologists in Education Services. (The Summer field Report). London: HMSO.Google Scholar
Deutsch, A. (1937) The Mentally Ill in America. New York: Doubleday Doran.Google Scholar
Dreikurs, R. (1949) Counseling for family adjustment. Individual Psychological Bulletin, 7, 119–137.Google ScholarPubMed
Evans, J. (1966) Analytic group therapy with adolescents. Adolescence, 1, 180–196.Google Scholar
Freud, A. (1928) Introduction to the Technique of Child Analysis. New York. Nervous and Mental Disease Publishing Company.Google Scholar
Freud, A. (1937) The Ego and Mechanisms of Defence. London: Hogarth Press.Google Scholar
Freud, A. (1946) The Psychoanalytic Treatment of Children. London: Imago.Google Scholar
Freud, S. (1909) Analysis of a five year old boy. In Collected Papers. London: Hogarth Press.Google Scholar
Grahame, P. (1976) Management in child psychiatry: recent trends. British Journal of Psychiatry, 129, 97–108.Google Scholar
Grahame, P. (1986) Child Psychiatry: A Developmental Approach. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Graziano, A. M. (1971) Behaviour Therapy with Children. Chicago: Aldine Publishing.Google Scholar
Groves, E. & Groves, C. (1946) Dynamic Mental Hygiene: With Special Emphasis on Family Counseling. Harrisburg: Stack pole.Google Scholar
Health Advisory Service (1986) Bridges Over Troubled Waters. England: HMSO.Google Scholar
Hersov, L. (1986) Child psychiatry in Britain: the last 30 years. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 27, 781–803.Google Scholar
Hersov, L. & Bentovim, A. (1985) In-patient and day hospital units. In Child and Adolescent Psychiatry: Modern Approaches (2nd edn) (eds Rutter, M. & Hersov, L.), pp. 766–779. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Howells, J. G. (1965) Organisation of child psychiatric services. In Modern Perspectives in Child Psychiatry (ed. Howells, J. G.). Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.Google Scholar
Howells, J. G. & Osborn, M. L. (1980/81) The history of child psychiatry in the United Kingdom. Acta Paedopsychiatrica, 46, 193–202.Google Scholar
Hug-Helmuth, H. (1921) On the technique of child analysis. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 2, 287–305.Google Scholar
Interdisciplinary Standing Committee (1981) Multidisciplinary Work in Child Guidance. London: Child Guidance Trust.Google Scholar
Isaacs, S. (1961) Obituary: Melanie Klein 1882–1960. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 2, 1–4.Google Scholar
Jenkins, H. (1990) Family therapy – developments in thinking and practice. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 31, 1015–1026.Google Scholar
Jensen, E. (1980) The Therapeutic Community. London: Croom Helm.Google Scholar
Jones, M. C. (1924) A laboratory study of fear: the case of Peter. Pedagogic Seminar, 31, 308–315.Google Scholar
Jones, M. (1952) Social Psychiatry. London: Tavistock.Google Scholar
Jones, M. (1968) Social Psychiatry in Practice. London: Penguin Books.Google Scholar
Kahn, J. H. (1962) The local authority child guidance clinic. Lancet, i, 659–960.Google Scholar
Kanner, L. (1935) Child Psychiatry. Springfield: Thomas.Google Scholar
Kanner, L. (1955) Child Psychiatry (3rd edn). Springfield: Thomas.Google Scholar
Kanner, L. (1959) Trends in child psychiatry. Journal of Mental Science, 105, 581–593.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keir, G. (1952) A history of child guidance. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 22, 5–29.Google Scholar
Kennard, D. (1983) An Introduction to Therapeutic Communities. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Kinston, W. & Bentovim, A. (1978) Brief focal family therapy when the child is the referred patient – II Methodology and results. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 19, 119–143.Google Scholar
Klopp, H. I. (1932) The children's institute of the Allentown state hospital. American Journal of Psychiatry, 88, 1108–1118.Google Scholar
Kolvin, I., Garside, R. F., Nicol, A. R., et al (1981) Help Starts Here. London: Tavistock.Google Scholar
Korner, E. (1984) Reports of the Steering Group on Health Services Information. London: DHSS.Google Scholar
Levy, D. M. (1951) Critical evaluation of the present state of child psychiatry. American Journal of Psychiatry, 108, 481–490.Google Scholar
Main, T. (1946) The hospital as a therapeutic institution. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 10, 66–70.Google Scholar
Meyer, A. (1909) The problems of the state in the care of the insane. American Journal of Insanity, 65, 690–705.Google Scholar
Meyer, A. (1935) Scope and teaching of psycho-biology. Journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges, 10, 93–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milham, S., Bullock, R., Hosie, K., et al (1981) Issues of Control in Residential Child Care. London: HMSO.Google Scholar
Miller, D. (1964) Growth to Freedom. London: Tavistock.Google Scholar
Miller, E. (1968) Foundations of Child Psychiatry. Oxford: Pergamon Press.Google Scholar
Moreno, J. L. (1953) Who Shall Survive? New York: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
Morgan, C. D. & Murray, H. A. (1935) Method for investigating fantasies: the thematic apperception test. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 34, 289–306.Google Scholar
Murphy, G. (1949) A Historical Introduction to Modern Psychology. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Neill, A. S. (1962) Summerhill. London: Gollancz.Google Scholar
Nurcombe, B. (1989) Goal-directed treatment planning and the principles of brief hospitalisation. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 26–30.Google Scholar
Orgler, H. (1974) Adlerian therapy. In Psychotherapy Today (ed. Varma, V.). London: Constable.Google Scholar
Ounsted, C., Lindsay, J. & Norman, R. (1966) Biological Factors in Temporal Lobe Epilepsy. London: Clinics in Developmental Medicine 22, Spastics Society in association with Williams Heinemann.Google Scholar
Parry-Jones, W. Ll. (1989) Annotation: the history of child and adolescent psychiatry: its present day relevance. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 30, 3–11.Google Scholar
Potter, H. W. (1934) A service for children in a psychiatric hospital. Psychiatric Quarterly, 8, 16–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Quinton, D. & Rutter, M. L. (1984) Institutional rearing, parental difficulty and marital support. Psychological Medicine, 14, 107–124.Google Scholar
Rachman, S. (1962) Learning theory and child psychology: therapeutic possibilities. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 3, 149–163.Google Scholar
Reder, P. & Lucey, C. (1990) Childhood adolescent psychiatry schemes: recent developments. Psychiatric Bulletin, 14, 615–617.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robins, L. N. (1978) Sturdy childhood predictors of adult antisocial behaviour: replications from longitudinal studies. Psychological Medicine, 8, 611–622.Google Scholar
Rogers, J. W. B. (1965) Children's inpatient units. In Modern Perspectives in Child Psychiatry (ed. Howells, J. C.). Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.Google Scholar
Rutter, M. (1986) Child psychiatry: looking 30 years ahead. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 27, 803–840.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M., Shaffer, D. & Sturge, C. (1975) A Guide to the Multiaxial Classification Scheme for Psychiatric Disorders in Childhood and Adolescence. London: Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Rutter, M., Maugham, B., Mortimore, P., et al (1979) Fifteen Thousand Hours. Wells: Open Books.Google Scholar
Rutter, M. & Hersov, L. (1985) Child and Adolescent Psychiatry; Modern Perspectives (2nd edn). Oxford: Black well.Google Scholar
Sands, D. E. (1953) A special mental hospital unit for the treatment of psychosis and neurosis in juveniles. Journal of Mental Science, 99, 123–129.Google Scholar
Seebohm, F. (1968) Report of the Committee on Local Authority and Allied Personal Social Services. London: HMSO.Google Scholar
Skinner, R. F. (1959) Cumulative Record. New York: Appleton Century.Google Scholar
Skynner, A. C. R. (1979) Reflections on the family therapist as a family scapegoat. Journal of Family Therapy, 1, 7–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slavson, S. E. (1943) An Introduction to Group Therapy. New York: Commonwealth Fund and Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Slavson, S. E. (1950) Analytic Group Psychotherapy with Children, Adolescents and Adults. New York: Columbia.Google Scholar
Sully, J. (1895) Studies in Childhood. London: Longmans.Google Scholar
Taylor, D. C. (1988) Child psychiatry: white elephant or Scotch mist. Bulletin of the Royal College of Psychiatrists, 12, 210–212.Google Scholar
Tizard, J. (1983) Maladjusted children in the child guidance service (1973). In Child Development and Social Policy. The Life and Work of Jack Tizard. (eds Clarke, A. D. B. & Tizard, B.), pp. 144–157. Leicester: British Psychological Society.Google Scholar
Traill, P. (1974) Psychotherapy for the school-aged child: a Margaret Lowenfeld approach. In Psychotherapy Today (ed. Varma, V.). London: Constable. Underwood, J. E. A. (1955) Report of the Committee on Maladjusted Children. London: HMSO.Google Scholar
Vernon, D. T. A., Foley, J. M., Sipowicz, R. R., et al (1965) The Psychological Response of Children to Hospitalisation and Illness. Springfield: Thomas.Google Scholar
Wardle, C. J. (1974) Treatment of severe conduct disorder. In The Residential Psychiatric Treatment of Children (ed. Barker, P.). London: Crosby Lockwood Staples.Google Scholar
Wardle, C. J. (1986) The Education Act 1981: the first year of working as reported by consultants in child and adolescent psychiatry. Bulletin of the Royal College of Psychiatrists, 10, 5–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wardle, C. J. (1989) Mental health services for children and adolescents. South West Psychiatry, 2, 7–16.Google Scholar
Wardle, C. J. (1991) Historical influences on services for children and adolescents before 1900. In 150 Years of British Psychiatry, 1841–1991 (eds Berrios, G. E. & Freeman, H.), pp. 279–293. London: Gaskell.Google Scholar
Warnock, H. M. (1978) Special Educational Needs: Report of the Enquiry into the Education of handicapped Children and Young People, cmnd 7212. London: HMSO.Google Scholar
Warren, W. (1952) Inpatient treatment of adolescents with psychological illness, Lancet, i, 147–150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warren, W. (1963) Obituary: Dr. Kenneth Cameron. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 4, 73.Google Scholar
Warren, W. (1971) “You can never plan the future by the past”. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 11, 141–247.Google Scholar
Warren, W. (1974) Child psychiatry and the Maudsley Hospital. The third Kenneth Cameron Lecture. Unpublished.Google Scholar
Watson, J. B. (1925) Behaviourism. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Weed, L. L. (1969) Medical Records, Medical Education and Patient Care: The Problem-Oriented Record as a Basic Tool. Cleveland, Ohio: Press of Case Western Reserve University.Google Scholar
West, C. (1848) Lectures on the diseases of infancy and childhood. London.Google Scholar
Williams, D. D. R. & Owen, A. (1988) Re-establishing effective team work. Health Trends, 4, 129–130.Google Scholar
Yule, W. (1984) Child behaviour therapy in Britain: 1962–1982. Newsletter of the Association of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 6, 15–20.Google Scholar
Submit a response

eLetters

No eLetters have been published for this article.