Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-mkpzs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-31T14:46:23.610Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Kindling as a Model for Alcohol Withdrawal Syndromes

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 January 2018

James C. Ballenger  and
Robert M. Post
James C. Ballenger
Affiliation:
Section on Psychobiology, Biological Psychiatry Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20014
Robert M. Post*
Affiliation:
Section on Psychobiology, Biological Psychiatry Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20014
*
Reprints requests should be sent to: Robert M. Post, M.D., National Institutes of Health, Building 10, Room 3S239, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Maryland 20014.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Summary

Periodic brain stimulation, particularly in the limbic system, at stimulus intensities initially too low to produce any behavioural or EEG effects, progressively produces EEG changes, motor automatisms, and eventually convulsions, an effect called kindling. Data are presented and reviewed that suggest that the severity of alcohol withdrawal symptoms progressively increases over years of alcohol abuse in a stepwise fashion similar to the kindling process. The model is presented that the limbic system hyperirritability which accompanies each alcohol withdrawal serves over time to kindle increasingly widespread subcortical structures. These long-term changes in neuronal excitability might relate to the progression of alcohol withdrawal symptoms from tremor to seizures and delirium tremens, as well as the alcoholic personality changes between episodes of withdrawal.

Type
Research Article
Information
The British Journal of Psychiatry , Volume 133 , Issue 1 , July 1978 , pp. 1 - 14
Copyright
Copyright © The Royal College of Psychiatrists 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adamec, R. (1975) Behavioral and epileptic determinants of predatory attack behavior in the cat. Can. J. Neurol. Sci., 2, 457–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arentsen, K. & Sindrum, E. (1963) Electroencephalographic investigation of alcoholics. Acta Psychiatr. Scand., 39, 371–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arnold, P., Racine, R. & Wise, R. (1973) Effects of atropine, reserpine, 6-hydroxydopamine and handling on seizure development in the rat. Exp. Neurol., 40, 458–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Babington, R. & Wedeking, P. (1973) The pharmacology of seizures induced by sensitization with low intensity brain stimulation. Pharmacol. Biochem. Beh., 1, 461–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ballenger, J. C., Goodwin, F. K., Major, F. & Brown, L. Alcohol and central serotonin metabolism in man. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, in press.Google Scholar
Bear, D. & Fedio, P. (1977) Quantitative analysis of interictal behavior in temporal lobe epilepsy. Arch. Neurol., 34, 454–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Begleiter, H. & Platz, A. (1972) The effects of alcohol on the central nervous system in humans. In The Biology of Alcoholism: Physiology and Behavior, Volume II (eds Kissin, B. and Begleiter, H.). New York and London: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Begleiter, H. Gross, M. M. & Porjesz, B. (1973) Recovery function and clinical symptomatology in acute alcoholization and withdrawal. In Alcohol Intoxication and Withdrawal: Experimental Studies (ed. Gross, M. M.). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Begleiter, H. Projesz, B. & Yerre-Grubstein, C. (1974) Excitability cycle of somatosensory evoked potentials during experimental alcoholization and withdrawal. Psychopharmacologia, 37, 15–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bjorkqvist, S. G., Isohanni, M., Makela, R. & Malinen, L. (1976) Ambulant treatment of alcohol withdrawal symptoms with carbamazepine: a formal multicentre double-blind comparison with placebo. Acta Psychiatr. Scand., 53, 333–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blumer, D. (1970) Changes in sexual behavior related to temporal lobe disorder in man. J. Sex. Res., 6, 173–80.Google Scholar
Blumer, D. (1974) Organic personality disorder. In Personality Disorders: Diagnosis and Management (ed. Lion, J.). Baltimore: Williams and Williams Co.Google Scholar
Branchey, M., Rauscher, G. & Kissin, B. (1971) Modifications in the response to alcohol following the establishment of physical dependence. Psychopharmacologia, 22, 314–22.Google Scholar
Brune, F. (1966) Anhebung der krampfschwelle als therapeutisches prinzip bei der behandlung von alkolhol-delirien. Nervenarzt, 37, 415–18.Google Scholar
Brune, F. & Busch, H. (1971) Anticonvulsive-sedative treatment of delirium alcoholism. Q,. J. Stud. Alcohol, 32, 334–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chambers, J. F. & Schultz, J. D. (1965) Double-blind study of three drugs in the treatment of acute alcoholic states. Q. J. Stud. Alcohol, 26, 10–18.Google Scholar
Cole, J. A. & Ryback, R. S. (1976) Pharmacological therapy. In Alcoholism: Interdisciplinary Approaches to an Enduring Problem (eds Tarter, R. and Sugerman, A.). Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.Google Scholar
Cutshall, B. J. (1965) The Saunders-Sutler syndrome: an analysis of delirium tremens. Q. J. Stud. Alcohol, 26, 423–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davies, D. L., Shepherd, M. & Myers, E. (1956) The two year prognosis of fifty alcohol addicts after treatment in hospital. Q. J. Stud Alcohol, 17, 485–502.Google Scholar
Deutsch, J. A. & Koopmans, H. S. (1973) Preference enhancement for alcohol by passive exposure. Science, 179, 1242–3.Google Scholar
Dewhurst, K. & Beard, A. W. (1970) Sudden religious conversions in temporal lobe epilepsy. Br. J. Psychiatry, 117, 497–507.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Edmonds, H. L. & Bellin, S. I. (1976) Quantification of alcohol intoxication and withdrawal in the rat. Neuroscience Abstracts, Sixth Annual Meeting of the Society for Neuroscience, 7–11 November 1976, II, Abstract #1250.Google Scholar
Ellis, F. W. & Pick, J. R. (1970) Experimentally induced ethanol dependence in rhesus monkeys. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 175, 88–93.Google Scholar
Essig, C. F. & Lam, R. C. (1971) The alcohol abstinence syndrome in dogs and its treatment with pentobarbital. In Recent Advances in Studies of Alcoholism: An Interdisciplinary Symposium, Washington, D.C., 1970 (eds Mello, N. K. and Mendelson, J.), Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, NIH Publ. No. (HSM) 71–9045.Google Scholar
Essig, C. F. Jones, E. & Lam, R. C. (1969) The effect of pentobarbital on alcohol withdrawal in dogs. Arch. Neurol., 20, 554–8.Google Scholar
Feldstein, A. (1971) Effect of ethanol on neurohumoral amine metabolism. In The Biology of Alcoholism: Biochemistry, Volume I (eds Kissin, B. and Begleiter, H.). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Feuerlein, W. (1967) Klinisch-statistische Untersuchengen Über die Entstehungsbedengungen und die Prognose des Alkoholdelirs. Nervenarzt, 38, 206–12.Google Scholar
Feuerlein, W. (1972) Zur frage des Alkohol-entzugssyndroms. Nervenarzt, 43, 247–53.Google Scholar
Feuerlein, W. (1974) The acute alcohol withdrawal syndrome: findings and problems. Br. J. Addict., 69, 141–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Flor-Henry, P. (1969) Schizophrenic-like reactions and affective psychoses associated with temporal lobe epilepsy: etiological factors. Am. J. Psychiatry, 126, 400–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freund, G. (1969) Alcohol withdrawal syndrome in mice. Arch. Neurol., 21, 315–20.Google Scholar
Freund, G. & Walker, D. W. (1971) Sound-induced seizures during ethanol withdrawal in mice. Psychopharmacologia, 22, 24–49.Google Scholar
Geschwind, N. (1973) Effects of temporal lobe surgery on behavior. N Engl. J. Med., 286, 480–1.Google Scholar
Gibbs, F. A. (1951) Ictal and nonictal psychiatric disorders in temporal lobe epilepsy. J. New. Ment. Dis., 113, 522–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Glatt, M. M. (1961) Drinking habits of English (middle class) alcoholics. Acta Psychiatr. Scand., 37, 88–113.Google Scholar
Goddard, G. V. & Douglas, R. M. (1975) Does the engram of kindling model the engram of normal long term memory? Can. J. Neurol. Sci., 2, 385–94.Google Scholar
Goddard, G. V. McIntyre, D. C. & Leech, C. K. (1969) A permanent change in brain function resulting from daily electrical stimulation. Exp. Neurol., 25, 295–330.Google Scholar
Goldstein, D. B. (1972a) Relationship of alcohol dose to intensity of withdrawal signs in mice. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 180, 203–15.Google ScholarPubMed
Goldstein, D. B. (1972b) An animal model for testing effects of drugs on alcohol withdrawal reactions. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 183, 14–22.Google ScholarPubMed
Goldstein, D. B. (1974) Rates of onset and decay of alcohol physical dependence in mice. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 190, 377–83.Google ScholarPubMed
Goldstein, D. B. & Arnold, V. W. (1976) Drinking patterns as predictors of alcohol withdrawal reactions in DBA/2 J mice. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 199, 408–14.Google Scholar
Gross, M. M., Lewis, E. & Hastey, J. (1974) Acute alcohol withdrawal syndrome. In The Biology of Alcoholism: Clinical Pathology, Volume III (eds Kissin, B. and Begleiter, H.). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Gross, M. M., Kierszenbaum, H. S., Lewis, E. & Lee, Y. (1976) Desire to drink: relationship to age, blood alcohol concentration, and severity of withdrawal syndrome on admission for detoxification. Ann. N.T. Acad. Sci., 273, 360–3.Google Scholar
Gross, M. M., Rosenblatt, S. M., Malinowski, B., Broman, M. & Lewis, E. (1971) A factor analytic study of the clinical phenomena in the acute alcohol withdrawal syndromes. In Selected Papers given at the 16th International Institute on the Prevention and Treatment of Alcoholism, Volume II. Toronto: Press of Addiction Research Foundation.Google Scholar
Gross, M. M., Rosenblatt, S. M., Lewis, E., Chartoff, S. & Malenowski, B. (1972) Acute alcoholic psychoses and related syndromes: psychsocial and clinical characteristics and their implications. Br. J. Addict., 67, 15–31.Google Scholar
Guerrero-Figueroa, R., Rye, M. M., Gallant, D. M. & Bishop, M. (1970) Electrographic and behavioral effects of diazepam during alcohol withdrawal stage in cats. Neuropharmacology, 9, 143–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hernandez-Peon, R. (1964) Anticonvulsive action of G32883. In Proceedings of the Third Collegium Internationale Neuropsychopharmacologicum, Munich, 1962. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Hill, D. (1953) Psychiatric disorders of epilepsy. Med. Res., 20, 473–5.Google Scholar
Himwich, H. E., Diperri, R., Dravid, A. & Schweigerdt, A. (1966) Comparative susceptibility to alcohol of the cortical area and midbrain reticular formation of the cat. Psychosom. Med., 28, 258–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horn, J. & Wanberg, K. (1969) Symptom patterns related to excessive use of alcohol. Q. J. Stud. Alcohol, 30, 35–58.Google Scholar
Hunt, W. A. (1973) Changes in the neuro-excitability of alcohol dependent rats undergoing withdrawal as measured by the pentylenetetrazole seizure threshold. Neuropharmacology, 12, 1097–102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hunter, B. E., Walker, D. W. & Riley, J. N. (1974) Dissociation between physical dependence and volitional ethanol consumption: role of multiple withdrawal episodes. Pharmacol. Biochem. Beh., 2, 523–9.Google Scholar
Hunter, B. E., Boast, C. A., Walker, D. W. & Zornetzer, S. F. (1973) Alcohol withdrawal syndrome in rats: neural and behavioral correlates. Pharmacol. Biochem. Beh., 1, 719–25.Google Scholar
Isbell, H., Fraser, H. F., Wikler, A., Belleville, R. & Eisenman, A. (1955) An experimental study of the etiology of ‘rum fits’ and delirium tremens. Q. J. Stud. Alcohol, 16, 1–33.Google Scholar
Jellinek, E. M. (1946) Phases in the drinking histories of alcoholics. Q. J. Stud. Alcohol, 7, 1–88.Google ScholarPubMed
Jellinek, E. M. (1952) Phases of alcohol addiction. Q. J. Stud. Alcohol, 13, 673–84.Google Scholar
Johnson, R. M. (1961) The alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Q. J. Stud. Alcohol (suppl. 1), 66–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaim, S. C. (1971) Drug treatment of the alcohol withdrawal syndrome. In Recent Advances in Studies of Alcoholism: An Interdisciplinary Symposium, Washington, D.C., 25–27 June 1970 (eds Mello, N. K. and Mendelson, J.). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, NIH Publ. No. (HSM) 71–9045.Google Scholar
Kalant, H. (1961) The pharmacology of alcohol intoxication. Q. J. Stud. Alcohol (suppl. 1), 1–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalant, H. Leblang, A. & Gibbins, R. (1971) Tolerance to, and dependence on, ethanol. In Biological Basis of Alcoholism (eds Israel, Y. and Mardones, J.). New York: Wiley and Sons.Google Scholar
Kissin, B. & Charnoff, S. M. (1967) Clinical evaluations of tranquillizers and antidepressants in the long term treatment of chronic alcoholism. In Alcoholism: Behavioral Research, Therapeutic Approaches (ed. Fox, R.). New York: Springer Publishing Co.Google Scholar
Kotani, K. (1967) EEG studies on endogenous psychoses and alcohol intoxication. Bull. Osaka Med. Sch. (suppl. 12), 303–14.Google Scholar
Lennox, W. G. (1941) Alcohol and epilepsy. Q. J. Stud. Alcohol, 2, 1–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lundquist, G. (1961) Delirium tremens: a comparative study of pathogenesis, course, and prognosis with delirium tremens. Acta Psychiatr. Scand., 36, 443–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacIntyre, D. C. (in press) Kindling and memory: the adrenal system and the bisected brain. In Proceedings of the Symposium on the Continuing Evolution of the Limbic System Concept (eds Livingston, K. and Hornykiewicz, O.). New York/London: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Macdonnell, M. F., Fessock, L. & Brown, S. H. (1971) Ethanol and the neural substrate for affective defense in the cat. Q. J. Stud. Alcohol, 32, 406–19.Google Scholar
Majchrowicz, E. & Hunt, W. A. (1976) Temporal relationship of the induction of tolerance and physical dependence after continuous intoxication with maximum tolerable doses of ethanol in rats. Psychopharmacology, 50, 107–12.Google Scholar
Marinacci, A. A. (1963) A special type of temporal lobe (psychomotor) seizures following ingestion of alcohol. Bull. Los Angeles Neurol. Soc., 28, 241–50.Google Scholar
Mason, C. R. & Cooper, R. M. (1972) A permanent change in convulsion threshold in normal and brain damaged rats with small repeated doses of pentylenetetrazol. Epilepsia, 13, 663–74.Google Scholar
McNamee, H., Mello, N. & Mendelson, J. (1968) Experimental analysis of drinking patterns of alcoholics: concurrent psychiatric observations. Am. J. Psychiatry, 124, 1063–9.Google Scholar
McQuarrie, D. & Fingl, E. (1958) Effect of single doses and chronic administration of ethanol on experimental seizures in mice. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 124, 264–71.Google Scholar
Mello, N. K. (1972) Behavioral studies on alcoholics. In The Biology of Alcoholism: Physiology and Behavior, Volume II (eds Kissin, B. and Begleiter, H.). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Mello, N. K. (1973) A review of methods to induce alcohol addiction in animals. Pharmacol. Biochem. Beh., 1, 89–101.Google Scholar
Mello, N. K. & Mendelson, J. H. (1976) The development of alcohol dependence: a clinical study. McLean Hosp. J., 1, 64–84.Google Scholar
Mendelson, J. H. (ed.) (1964) Experimentally induced chronic intoxication and withdrawal in alcoholics. Q. J. Stud. Alcohol (suppl. 2).Google Scholar
Mendelson, J. H. (x 1972) Biochemical mechanisms of alcohol addiction. In The Biology of Alcoholism: Biochemistry, Volume I (eds Kissin, B. and Begleiter, H.). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Mendelson, J. H. & La Dou, J. (1964) Experimentally induced chronic intoxication and withdrawal in alcoholics: psychophysiological findings. Q. J. Stud. Alcohol (suppl. 2), 14–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mendelson, J. H. Stein, S. & McGuire, M. T. (1966) Comparative psychophysiological studies of alcoholic and nonalcoholic subjects undergoing experimentally induced ethanol intoxication. Psychosom. Med., 28, 1–12.Google Scholar
Naitoh, P. (1972) The effects of alcohol on the autonomic nervous system of humans: psychophysiological approach. In The Biology of Alcoholism: Physiology and Behavior, Volume II (eds Kissin, B. and Begleiter, H.). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Nielsen, J. (1965) Delirium tremens in Copenhagen: part of a cross-national investigation of delirium tremens in the Nordic counties sponsored by the Nordic Committee for alcohol research. Acta Psychiatr. Scand., 187, 1–92.Google Scholar
Park, P. (1973) Developmental ordering of experiences in alcoholism. Q. J. Stud. Alcohol, 34, 473–88.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pinel, J. P. J. & Van Oot, P. H. (1975) Generality of the kindling phenomenon: some clinical implications. Can. J. Neurol. Sci., 2, 467–75.Google Scholar
Pinel, J. P. J. & Van Oot, P. H. (1975) Intensification of the alcohol withdrawal syndrome by repeated brain stimulation. Nature, 254, 510–11.Google Scholar
Pinel, J. P. J. Treit, D. & Rovner, L. I. (1977) Temporal lobe aggression in rats. Science, 197, 1088–9.Google Scholar
Post, R. M., Kopanda, R. T. & Lee, A. (1975) Progressive behavioral changes during chronic lidocaine administration: relationship to kindling. Life Sci, 17, 943–50.Google Scholar
Post, R. M., Kopanda, R. T. & Black, K. E. (1976) Progressive effects of cocaine on behavior and central amine metabolism in rhesus monkeys: relationship to kindling and psychosis. Biol. Psychiatry, 11, 403–19.Google Scholar
Pritchard, J. W., Gallagher, B. B. & Glaser, G. H. (1969) Experimental seizure threshold testing with flurothyl. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 166, 170–8.Google Scholar
Racine, R. J. (1972) Modification of seizure activity by electrical stimulation: II. Motor seizures. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol., 32, 281–94.Google Scholar
Racine, R. J. Livingston, K. & Joaquin, A. (1975) Effects of procaine hydrochloride, diazepam, and diphenylhydantoin on seizure development in cortical and subcortical structures in rats. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol., 38, 355–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ratcliff, F. (1972) Ethanol dependence in the rat: its production and characteristics. Arch. Int. Pharmacodyn. Ther., 196, 146–56.Google Scholar
Rawat, A. K. (1974) Brain levels and turnover rates of presumptive neurotransmitters as influenced by administration of ethanol in mice. J. Neurochem., 22, 915–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenblatt, S. M., Gross, M. M., Malenowski, B., Broman, M. & Lewis, E. (1972) Factor analysis of the daily clinical course rating scale of the acute alcoholic psychoses. Q. J. Stud. Alcohol, 33, 1060–4.Google Scholar
Rothstein, E. (1973) Prevention of alcohol withdrawal seizures: the roles of diphenylhydantoin and chlordiazepoxide. Am. J. Psychiatry, 130, 1381–2.Google Scholar
Segal, B. M., Kushnarev, V. M., Urakov, I. G. & Misionzhnik, E. U. (1970) Alcoholism and disruptions of activity of deep cerebral structures. Q. J. Stud. Alcoholism, 31, 587–601.Google Scholar
Serafetinides, E. A. (1965) Aggressiveness in temporal lobe epileptics and its relation to cerebral dysfunction and environmental factors. Epilepsia, 6, 33–42.Google Scholar
Singer, K. & Wong, M. (1973) Alcoholic psychoses and alcoholism in the Chinese. Q. J. Stud. Alcohol, 34, 878–86.Google Scholar
Slater, E. & Moran, P. A. P. (1969) The schizophreniclike psychoses of epilepsy: relationship between ages of onset. Br. J. Psychiatry, 11, 599–600.Google Scholar
Spitzer, R., Endicott, J. & Robins, E. (1975) Research Diagnostic Criteria. New York: New York State Department of Mental Hygiene, New York State Psychiatric Institute, Biometrics Research.Google Scholar
Stevens, J. R. (1975) Interictal clinical manifestations of complex partial seizures. In Advances in Neurology: Complex Partial Seizures and Their Treatment, Volume II (eds Penry, J. K. and Daly, D. D.). New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Tamerin, J. S. & Mendelson, J. H. (1969) The psycho-dynamics of chronic inebriation: observations of alcoholics during the process of drinking in an experimental group setting. Am. J. Psychiatry, 125, 886–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, D. W. & Freedman, D. X. (1964) Treatment of the alcohol withdrawal syndrome: comparison of promazine and paraldehyde. JAMA, 188, 316–18.Google Scholar
Thompson, W. L., Johnson, A. D. & Maddrey, W. L. (1975) Diazepam and paraldehyde for treatment of severe delirium tremens: a controlled trial. Arm. Intern. Med., 82, 175–80.Google Scholar
Trice, H. & Wahl, R. (1958) A rank order analysis of symptoms of alcoholism. Q. J. Stud. Alcohol, 19, 636–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Victor, M. (1970) The alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Postgrad. Med., 47, 68–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Victor, M. (1973) Withdrawal, neurological syndromes, and EEG. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 215, 210–13.Google Scholar
Victor, M. & Adams, R. D. (1953) The effect of alcohol on the nervous system. Proc. A. Res. Nero. Ment. Dis., 32, 526–73.Google ScholarPubMed
Victor, M. & Brausch, J. (1967) The role of abstinence in the genesis of alcoholic epilepsy. Epilepsia, 8, 1–20.Google Scholar
Vosu, H. & Wise, R. A. (1975) Cholinergic seizure kindling in the rat: comparison of caudate, amygdala, and hippocampus. Behav. Biol., 13, 491–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wada, J. & Sato, M. (1974) Generalized convulsive seizures induced by daily electrical stimulation of the amygdala in cats: correlative electrographic and behavioral features. Neurology, 24, 565–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wada, J. & Osawa, T. (1976) Spontaneous recurrent seizure state induced by daily electric amygdaloid stimulation in Senegalese baboons (Papio papio). Neurology, 26, 273–86.Google Scholar
Wada, J. Sato, M., Wake, A., Green, J. & Troupin, S. (1976) Prophylactic effects of phenytoin, phenobarbital, and carbamazepine examined in kindling cat preparations. Arch. Neurol., 33, 426–34.Google Scholar
Walker, D. W. & Zornetzer, S. F. (1974) Alcohol withdrawal in mice: electroencephalographic and behavioral correlates. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol., 36, 233–43.Google Scholar
Whitwell, F. D. (1975) A study into the etiology of delirium tremens. Br. J. Addict., 70, 156–61.Google Scholar
Wikler, A., Pescor, F. T., Fraser, H. F. & Isbell, H. (1956) Electroencephalographic changes associated with chronic alcoholic intoxication and the alcohol abstinence syndrome. Am. J. Psychiatry, 113, 106–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wise, R. & Chinbrman, J. (1974) Effects of diazepam and phenobarbital on electrically induced amygdaloid seizures and seizure development. Exp. Neurol., 45, 355–63.Google Scholar
Wolfe, S. M. & Victor, M. (1971) The alcohol withdrawal syndrome. In Recent Advances in Studies of Alcoholism: An Interdisciplinary Symposium, Washington, D.C., 25–27 June 1970 (eds Mello, N. K. and Mendelson, J.). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, NIH Publ. No. (HSM) 71–9045.Google Scholar
Submit a response

eLetters

No eLetters have been published for this article.