Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-94fs2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-02T20:29:10.324Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

D1 and D2 and D3

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2018

D. Healy*
Affiliation:
Academic Unit, North Wales Hospital, Denbigh, Clwyd LL16 5SS

Extract

Good scientific hypotheses rarely succumb to a lack of confirmatory evidence; they may sometimes even be resistant to apparent outright refutation (Kuhn, 1970; Lakatos, 1970). Considering this, Kuhn (1970) suggested that the dominant hypotheses in a field are often replaced not on grounds of greater theoretical coherence but rather on grounds of strategic necessity.

Type
Annotation
Copyright
Copyright © 1991 The Royal College of Psychiatrists 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

American Psychiatric Association (1980) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd edn) (DSM—III). Washington, DC: APA.Google Scholar
Anden, N. E., Butcher, S. G., Corrodi, H., et al (1970) Receptor activity and turnover of dopamine and noradrenaline after neuroleptics. European Journal of Pharmacology, 11, 303.Google Scholar
Bannon, M. J. & Roth, R. H. (1983) Pharmacology of mesocortical dopamine neurones. Pharmacological Reviews, 35, 5368.Google Scholar
Baldessarini, R. (1980) Drugs used in the treatment of the psychoses. In The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics (6th edn) (eds Gilman, A. G., Goodman, L. S. & Gilman, A.), pp. 395418. Basingstoke: MacMillan.Google Scholar
Bellack, A. S., Mueser, K. T., Morrison, R. L., et al (1990) Remediation of cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 16501655.Google Scholar
Berger, H. J., van Hoof, J. J., van Spaendonck, K. P., et al (1989) Haloperidol and cognitive shifting. Neuropsychology, 27, 629639.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowers, M. B. (1985) Cerebrospinal fluid homovanillic acid and hypokinetic effects of neuroleptics. Psychopharmacology, 15, 184186.Google Scholar
Bowers, M. B. & Heninger, G. R. (1981) Cerebrospinal fluid homovanillic acid patterns during neuroleptic treatment. Psychiatry Research, 4, 285290.Google Scholar
Bowers, M. B. & Swigar, M. E. (1988) Psychotic patients who become worse on neuroleptics. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 8, 417421.Google Scholar
Carmen, E. H., Rieker, P. P. & Mills, T. (1984) Victims of violence and psychiatric illness. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 378383.Google Scholar
Carlsson, A. (1990) Early psychopharmacology and the rise of modem brain research. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 4, 120126.Google Scholar
Carlsson, A. & Lindquist, M. (1963) Effect of chlorpromazine and haloperidol on formation of 3-methoxy-tyramine and normetanephrine in mouse brain. Acta Pharmacologia et Toxicologia, 20, 140144.Google Scholar
Cassens, G., Inglis, A. K., Appelbaum, P. S., et al (1990) Neuroleptics; effects on neuropsychological function in chronic schizophrenic patients. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 16, 477499.Google Scholar
Chadwick, P. J. & Lowe, F. (1990) Measurement and modification of delusional beliefs. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 26, 257265.Google Scholar
Chapman, J. (1966) The early symptoms of schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 112, 225251.Google Scholar
Chapman, J. (1967) Visual imagery and motor phenomena in acute schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 113, 771778.Google Scholar
Chapman, J. & McGhie, A. (1963) An approach to the psychotherapy of cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 36, 253260.Google Scholar
Chapman, J. & McGhie, A. (1964) Echopraxia in schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 110, 365374.Google Scholar
Chu, J. A. & Dill, D. L. (1990) Dissociative symptoms in relation to childhood physical and sexual abuse. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 887892.Google Scholar
Cohen, R. M., Semple, W. E., Gross, M., et al (1987) Dysfunction in a prefrontal substrate of sustained attention in schizophrenia. Life Sciences, 40, 20312039.Google Scholar
Cooper, J. E., Kendell, R. E., Gurland, B. J., et al (1972) Psychiatric Diagnosis in New York and London: A Comparative Study of Mental Hospital Admissions. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Crow, T. J. (1980) Positive and negative schizophrenic symptoms and the role of dopamine. British Journal of Psychiatry, 137, 383386.Google Scholar
Crow, T. J. (1990) Temporal lobe asymmetries as the key to the etiology of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 16, 433444.Google Scholar
Falloon, I. R. & Talbot, R. E. (1981) Persistent auditory hallucinations: coping mechanisms and implications for management. Psychological Medicine, 11, 329339.Google Scholar
Farde, L., Wiesel, F.-A., Hall, H., et al (1987) No D-2 receptor increase in PET study of schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 671672.Google Scholar
Farde, L., Wiesel, F.-A., Stone-Elander, S., et al (1990) D-2 dopamine receptors in neuroleptic naive schizophrenic patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 47, 213219.Google Scholar
Frith, C. D. (1987) The positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia reflect impairments in the perception and initiation of action. Psychological Medicine, 17, 631648.Google Scholar
Frith, C. D. & Done, D. J. (1988) Towards a neuropsychology of schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 437443.Google Scholar
Glennon, R. A. (1990) Serotonin receptors: clinical implications. Neuroscience and Biobehavioural Reviews, 14, 3547.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldberg, T. E., Weinberger, D. R., Berman, K. F., et al (1987) Further evidence for dementia of the prefrontal type in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 10081014.Google Scholar
Healy, D. (1987) The structure of psychopharmacological revolutions. Psychiatry Developments, 4, 349376.Google Scholar
Healy, D. (1989) Neuroleptics and psychic indifference. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 82, 615619.Google Scholar
Healy, D. (1990a) Schizophrenia: basic, release, reactive and defect processes. Human Psychopharmacology, 5, 105121.Google Scholar
Healy, D. (1990b) The Suspended Revolution: Psychiatry and Psychotherapy Re-examined. London: Faber & Faber.Google Scholar
Healy, D. (1991) Images of Uncertainty: Trauma, Neurosis, Hysteria. London: Faber & Faber.Google Scholar
Herman, J. L., Perry, C., Van der Kolk, B. A. (1989) Childhood trauma in borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 490495.Google Scholar
Joseph, M. H., Frith, C. D. & Waddington, J. L. (1979) Dopaminergic mechanisms and cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. Psychopharmacology, 63, 273280.Google Scholar
King, D. J. (1990) The effect of neuroleptics on cognitive and psychomotor function. British Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 799811.Google Scholar
Kluft, R. P. (1987) First-rank symptoms as a diagnostic clue to multiple personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 293298.Google Scholar
Koehler, K. (1979) First rank symptoms of schizophrenia; questions concerning clinical boundaries. British Journal of Psychiatry, 134, 236248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kroll, J. (1988) The Challenge of the Borderline Patient. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Kuhn, T. (1970) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Lakatos, I. (1970) Falsification and the methodology of scientific research programmes. In Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge (eds Lakatos, I. & Musgrove, A.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lowe, F. & Chadwick, P. J. (1990) Verbal control of delusions. Behaviour Therapy, 21, 461480.Google Scholar
May, P. R., Van Putten, T., Yale, C., et al (1976) Predicting individual responses to drug treatment in schizophrenia: a test dose model. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, 162, 177183.Google Scholar
McKenna, P. J. (1987) Pathology, phenomenology and the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 288301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGhie, A. & Chapman, J. (1961) Disorders of attention and perception in early schizophrenia. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 34, 103116.Google Scholar
Medalia, A., Gold, J. & Merriam, A. (1988) The effects of neuroleptics on neuropsychological test results of schizophrenics. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 3, 249271.Google Scholar
Mesulam, M. M. (1981) Dissociative states with abnormal temporal lobe EEG: multiple personality and the illusion of possession. Archives of Neurology, 38, 176181.Google Scholar
Montgomery, S. A. & Montgomery, D. (1982) Pharmacological prevention of suicidal behaviour. Journal of Affective Disorders, 4, 291298.Google Scholar
Robbins, T. W. (1990) The case for frontostriatal dysfunction in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 16, 391401.Google Scholar
Roberts, G. W. (1991) Schizophrenia: a neuropathological perspective. British Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 817.Google Scholar
Ross, C. A., Miller, S. D., Reagor, P., et al (1990) Schneiderian symptoms in multiple personality disorder and schizophrenia. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 31, 111118.Google Scholar
Seeman, P. (1980) Brain dopamine receptors. Pharmacology Review, 32, 229313.Google Scholar
Silverstone, T. (1985) Dopamine in manic-depressive illness. Journal of Affective Disorders, 8, 225231.Google Scholar
Snyder, S. H. (1976) The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia; focus on the dopamine receptor. American Journal of Psychiatry, 133, 197202.Google Scholar
Snyder, S. H. (1982) Schizophrenia. Lancet, ii, 970973.Google Scholar
Sokoloff, P., Giros, B., Martres, M.-P., et al (1990) Molecular cloning and characterisation of a novel dopamine receptor (D-3) as a target for neuroleptics. Nature, 347, 146151.Google Scholar
Spohn, H. E. & Strauss, M. E. (1989) Relation of neuroleptic and anticholinergic medication to cognitive functions in schizophrenia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 98, 367380.Google Scholar
Stevens, J. R. (1973) An anatomy of schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 29, 177189.Google Scholar
Swazey, J. P. (1974) Chlorpromazine in Psychiatry. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Taylor, M. A. & Abrams, R. (1978) The prevalence of schizophrenia: a reassessment using modern criteria. American Journal of Psychiatry, 135, 945948.Google Scholar
Trimble, M. R. (1990) First-rank symptoms of Schneider: a new perspective? British Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 195200.Google Scholar
Van Putten, T., Mutalipassi, L. R., Malkin, M. D., et al (1974) Phenothiazine-induced decompensation. Archives of General Psychiatry, 30, 102105.Google Scholar
Van Putten, T., May, P. R., Marder, S. R., et al (1981) Subjective response to antipsychotic drugs. Archives of General Psychiatry, 38, 187190.Google Scholar
Van Putten, T., Marder, S. R. & Mintz, J. (1990) A controlled dose comparison of haloperidol in newly admitted schizophrenic patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 47, 754758.Google Scholar
Van Rossum, J. M. (1966) The significance of dopamine receptor blockade in the mechanism of action of neuroleptic drugs. Archives of International Pharmacodynamics and Therapeutics, 60, 492494.Google Scholar
Waddington, J. L. (1989) Implications of recent research on dopamine D-1 and D-2 receptor subtypes in relation to schizophrenia and neuroleptic drug action. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 2, 8992.Google Scholar
Williams, J. M. G. (1991) Personality disorder and the will: a cognitive neuropsychological approach. Brain and Behavioural Sciences (submitted).Google Scholar
Wong, D. F., Wagner, H. N., Tune, L. E., et al (1986) Positron emission tomography reveals elevated D-2 dopamine receptors in drug-naive schizophrenics. Science, 234, 15581563.Google Scholar
Submit a response

eLetters

No eLetters have been published for this article.