Published online by Cambridge University Press: 02 January 2019
Professor Roy W. Battenhouse has recently presented us with a most stimulating and perceptive essay on “The Doctrine of Man in Calvin and in Renaissance Platonism.” In it he argued that the general mode of Calvin's thought about the states of man—innocent, fallen, and saved—conformed to the pattern of Renaissance neoplatonist ideas of the different levels of human existence. Although the specific conclusions and content of Calvin's thinking (e.g., predestination and the denial of free will) were on their face diametrically opposed to those of Pico della Mirandola and Ficino,
Calvin's rejection of humanism for theology, and of reason for revelation, seems to have been a rejection more often of conclusions than of basic definitions and assumptions… . Calvin's doctrine of man may have a subterranean dependence on the very Renaissance optimism and rationalism which Calvin sought to reprove and chasten.
An early version of this paper was read before the New England Conference on Renaissance Studies, at Northampton, Mass., October 30-31, 1953.
2 Journal of the History of Ideas, IX (1948), 447-71.
3 Ibid., 469-70. Of course, the writings of Pico and Ficino might well be considered as much theological as humanist.
4 Weber, Max, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, tr. Parsons, Talcott (London, 1930)Google Scholar; Troeltsch, Ernst, The Social Teaching of the Christian Churches, tr. Wyon, Olive (London, 1931), II, 515–656.Google Scholar Cf., on the other hand, Reinhold Niebuhr's defense of Reformation theology against what he considered to be the falsely optimistic Medieval Catholic and Renaissance views of man, particularly his The Nature and Destiny of Man (New York, 1941 and 1943). I have emphasized a contrary view to that of Niebuhr in “The Problem of Free Will in the Renaissance and the Reformation,” Journal of the History of Ideas, X (1949), 51-62.
5 For a more extended discussion see my essay, “The Religious Foundation of Luther's Social Views,” in Records of Medieval Civilization, Texts and Studies in Honor of Austin Patterson Evans (New York: Columbia University Press, 1954).
6 The present study is based on Calvin's final and definitive version of the Institutio Christianae Religionis published in 1559. I have used the edition of Wilhelm Baum, Eduard Cunitz and Eduard Reuss (Brunswick, 1869), Vol. II of which contains the 1559 version. References will be to book, chapter, and paragraph. Translations are from John Allen's version (6th American ed.; Philadelphia, 1932).
“Quia enim ad hypocrisin natura propensi sumus omnes, ideo inanis quaedam iustitiae species pro iustitia ipsa nobis abunde satisfacit. Et quia nihil intra nos vel circum apparet quod non sit plurima obscoenitate inquinatum, quod paulo minus foedum est pro purissimo arridet, quamdiu mentem nostram intra humanae pollutionis fines continemus. Non secus atque oculus, cui nihil alias obversatur nisi nigri colons, candidissimum esse iudicat, quod tamen subobscura est albedine, vel nonnulla etiam fuscedine aspersum. Quin ex corporeo sensu propius adhuc discernere licet quantum in aestimandis animae virtutibus hallucinemur. Nam si vel terram despicimus medio die, vel intuemur quae aspectui nostro circumcirca patent, validissima perspicacissimaque acie videmur nobis praediti; at ubi in solem suspicimus, atque arrectis oculis contemplamur, vis ilia quae egregie in terra valebat, tanto fulgore protinus perstringitur et confunditur, ut fateri cogamur, illud nostrum in considerandis terrenis acumen, ubi ad solem ventum est, meram esse hebetudinem. Ita et in reputandis spiritualibus nostris bonis contingit”; I, i, 2.
7 Op. cit., 462, in reference to Inst., Ill, ii, 19.
8 Please note that I am not claiming any causal relationship between theology and science but am only suggesting that there was a parallel epistemological structure in them. In Calvin's case this was not merely a restatement of the classical idealist point of view. The latter (e.g., Plato) regarded the dualism between chaos and order as part of the metaphysical structure of the universe. Calvin on the other hand regarded the anarchic elements of both nature and human history as anarchic or chaotic only in appearance, but in reality a part of a divinely determined order of events. His concern was epistemological. My impression is that this holds true of the early modern philosophy of science as well. However, ProfessorMerton, Robert K. in his “Science and Technology in the Seventeenth Century,” Osiris, IV (1938), 360-632CrossRefGoogle Scholar, has attempted to demonstrate an intimate relationship between Calvinist ideas and scientific theories in seventeenth-century English scientists.
9 “Fateor quidem pie hoc posse dici, modo a pio animo proficiscatur, naturam esse Deum; sed quia dura est et impropria loquutio quum potius natura sit ordo a Deo praescriptus, in rebus tanti ponderis, et quibus debetur singularis religio, involvere confuse Deum cum inferiore operum suorum cursu, noxium est“; I, v, 5.
10 “Mirificam eius sapientiam quae testentur, innumera sunt turn in coelo, turn in terris documenta: non ilia modo reconditiora, quibus propius observandis astrologia, medicina, et tota physica scientia destinata est; sed quae rudissimi cuiusque idiotae aspectui se ingerunt, ut aperiri oculi nequeant quin eorum cogantur esse testes. Equidem qui liberales illas artes vel imbiberunt, vel etiam degustarunt, earum subsidio adiuti longe altius provehuntur ad introspicienda divinae sapientiae arcana; nemo tamen earum inscitia impeditur quominus artificii satis superque pervideat in Dei operibus, unde in opificis admirationem prorumpat. Nempe ad disquirendos astrorum motus, distribuendas sedes, metienda intervalla, proprietates notandas, arte ac exactiore industria opus est; quibus perspectis, ut Dei providentia explicatius se profert, ita in eius gloriam conspiciendam, animum par est aliquanto sublimius assurgere. Sed quum ne plebeii quidem et rudissimi, qui solo oculorum adminiculo instructi sunt, ignorare queant divinae artis excellentiam, ultro se in ista innumerabili, et tamen adeo distincta et disposita coelestis militiae varietate exserentem, constat neminem esse cui non abunde sapientiam suam Dominus patefaciat. Similiter in humani corporis structura connexionem, symmetriam, pulchritudinem, usum, ea quam Galenus adhibet solertia pensiculare, eximii est acuminis. Sed omnium tamen confessione, prae se fert corpus humanum tam ingeniosam compositionem, ut ob earn merito admirabilis opifex iudicetur. Ac proinde quidam ex philosophis olim hominem non immerito vocarunt μι χρóχoσμov, quia rarum sit potentiae, bonitatis et sapientiae Dei specimen, satisque miraculorum in se contineat occupandis nostris mentibus, modo ne attendere pigeat“; I, v, 2-3.
11 “I am potentia quam praeclaris speciminibus nos in considerationem sui rapit? nisi forte latere nos potest cuius sit virtutis, infinitam hanc coeli ac terrae molem suo verbo sustentare; solo nutu nunc fragore tonitruum coelum concutere, fulminibus quidlibet exurere, fulgetris aerem accendere; nunc variis tempestatum formis conturbare, eundem ipsum statim, ubi libuit, uno momento serenare; mare, quod assiduam terrae vastationem minari sua altitudine videtur, quasi in aere suspensum coercere; et nunc horrendum in modum tumultuoso ventorum impetu concitare, nuc sedatis undis, pacatum reddere”; I, v, 6. Calvin's French prose style has long been admired, but he was equally a master of a Latin style whose flavor Allen most ably captures in his translation. However much he may have been inspired by acknowledged Biblical models, this language is his own, and the imaginative quality is sixteenth century in its emphasis on a single purpose behind the shifting manifestations of meteorological power.
12 “Prions exemplum est, dum reputamus quanti fuerit artificis, hanc steilarum multitudinem, quae in coelo est, tarn disposita serie ordinare et aptare ut nihil excogitari possit aspectu speciosius; alias ita inserere et affigere suis stationibus ut moved nequeant; aliis liberiorem cursum concedere, sed ita ut errando non ultra spatium vagentur; omnium motum ita temperare, ut dies et noctes, menses, annos et anni tempora metiatur; et hanc quoque, quam quotidie cernimus, inaequalitatem dierum ad tale temperamentum redigere ut nihil confusionis habeat. Sic quoque dum potentiam observamus, in sustinenda tanta mole, in tarn celeri coelestis machinae volutatione gubernanda, et similibus“; I, xiv, 21.
13 “Quum coelum occupant densae nubes, exoriturque violenta tempestas, quia et tristis caligo oculis obiicitur, et tonitru aures percellit, et sensus omnes terrore obstupefiunt, videntur nobis omnia confundi et misceri; eadem interim semper manet in coelo quies et serenitas. Ita statuendum est, dum res in mundo turbulentae judicium nobis eripiunt, Deum ex pura iustitiae et sapientiae suae luce hos ipsos motus optime composite ordine temperare ac dirigere in rectum finem“; I, xvii, 1.
14 “Iam et hoc addendum est, quamvis aut paternus Dei favor et beneficentia, aut iudicii severitas saepe in toto providentiae cursu reluceat, interdum tamen eorum quae accidunt occultas esse causas, ut obrepat cogitatio, caeco fortunae impetu volvi et rotarires humanas; vel ad obloquendum nos caro sollicitet, ac si Deus homines quasi pilas iactando, ludum exerceret”; I, xvii, 1.
15 “Nam si reputamus quam lubricus sit humanae mentis lapsus in Dei oblivionem, quanta in omne genus erroris proclivitas, quanta ad confingendas identidem novas et fictitias religiones libido; perspicere licebit quam necessaria fuerit talis coelestis doctrinae consignatio, ne vel oblivione deperiret, vel errore evanesceret, vel audacia hominum corrumperetur“; I, vi, 3.
16 “Anthropomorphitae etiam, qui Deum corporeum ex eo sunt imaginati quod os, aures, oculos, manus et pedes scriptura illi saepe ascribit, facile refutantur. Quis enim, vel parum ingeniosus, non intelligit Deum ita nobiscum, ceu nutrices solent cum infantibus, quodammodo balbutire? Proinde tales loquendi formae non tam ad liquidum exprimunt qualis sit Deus, quam eius notitiam tenuitati nostrae accommodant”; I, xiii, 1. However, Breen, Quirinus (John Calvin: A Study in French Humanism [Grand Rapids, 1931], 134)Google Scholar argues that he gave “unqualified approval” to the work of Erasmus and Valla even after his preconversion humanist days.
17 Such a suggestion of a principle of interpretation based on the assumption of a changing and evolving human culture and mentality and an eternal Divine Truth, in which it is the purpose of God to reveal himself according to the capacities of different ages to comprehend him, may well bear further investigation. It contrasts as much with the medieval “figural” mode of exegesis as with humanist philology; cf. Auerbach, Erich, “Figura,” Atchivum Romanicum, XXII (1938), 436 Google Scholar, and his Mimesis (Princeton, 1953), 73-76. Calvin throws further light on his methods, showing that he adds to the notion of “prefiguration” that of “accommodation”: “non propterea mutabilem iudicari Deum debere quod diversis saeculis diversas formas accommodaverit, prout cuique expedire noverat” (II, xi, especially 13 and 14). Within the framework of a providential history of mankind, to which he obviously and tenaciously holds, he has introduced a notion of the historical relativism of the divine Word.
18 “Maneat ergo hoc fixum, quos spiritus sanctus intus docuit, solide acquiescere in scriptura, et hanc quidem esse avróπιστov, neque demonstrationi et rationibus subiici eam fas esse; quam tamen meretur apud nos certitudinem, spiritus testimonio consequi… . Illius ergo virtute illuminati, iam non aut nostro, aut aliorum iudicio credimus, a Deo esse scripturam; sed supra humanum judicium, certo certius constituimus (non secus ac si ipsius Dei numen illic intueremur) hominum ministerio, ab ipsissimo Dei ore ad nos fluxisse”; I, vii, 5.
19 “At vero fides altius penetrare debet, nempe ut quern omnium creatorem esse didicit, statim quoque perpetuum moderatorem et conservatorem esse colligat; neque id universali quadam motione tarn orbis machinam quam singulas eius partes agitando; sed singulari quadam providentia unumquodque eorum quae condidit, ad minimum usque passerem, sustinendo, fovendo, curando”; I, xvi, 1.
20 “Et sane omnipotentiam sibi vendicat ac deferri a nobis vult Deus, non qualem sophistate fingunt, inanem, otiosam et fere sopitam; sed vigilem, efficacem, operosam, et quae in continuo actu versetur”; I, xvi, 3.
21 Ibid., I, xvi, 4.
22 ”… industriae hominum vel fortunae adscribunt quod alii iacent in sordibus, alii ad honores emergunt … arcano eius consilio alios excellere, alios manere contemptibiles”; I, xvi, 6.
23 Of course it is an exaggeration to think of any one humanist point of view on such matters. Opinion ranged from Valla's inability to resolve the logical contradiction between predestination and free will, to the optimistic affirmations of moral freedom by Pico or Erasmus. There probably was a unity, however, on the desirability of free will, whatever difficulties seemed to confront it. Cf. my paper on “The Problem of Free Will,” cited in n. 4, above.
24 “Quoniam tamen longe infra providentiae Dei altitudinem subsidit mentis nostrae tarditas, adhibenda est quae earn sublevet distinctio. Dicam igitur, utcunque ordinentur omnia Dei consilio certa dispensatione, nobis tamen esse fortuita. Non quod fortunam reputemus mundo ac hominibus dominari, temereque omnia sursum deorsum volutare (abesse enim a christiano pectore decet hanc vecordiam); sed quoniam eorum quae eveniunt, ordo, ratio, finis, necessitas, ut plurimum in Dei consilio latet, et humana opinione non apprehenditur, quasi fortuita sunt, quae certum est ex Dei voluntate provenire”; I, xvi, 9.
25 “Si mortis nostrae punctum signavit Dominus, effugere non licet: frustra igitur in cautionibus adhibendis laboratur… . omnes denique vias excogitant, et magna animi intentione excudunt, quibus id quod concupiscunt assequantur: aut haec omnia inania sunt remedia, quae captantur ad corrigendam Dei voluntatem, aut non certo eius decreto terminantur vita et mors, sanitas et morbus, pax et bellum, et alia quae homines, prout vel appetunt vel oderunt, ita sua industria vel obtinere vel refugere student… . In summa, omnia quae in posterum capiuntur consilia tollunt, perinde ac Dei providentiae adversa, quae, illis non advocatis, quid fieri vellet decrevit. Deinde quidquid iam accidit, ita providentiae Dei imputant, ut conniveant ad hominem, quem id ipsum designasse constet. Occidit sicarius probum civem? exsequutus est, inquiunt, consilium Dei… . Ita flagitia omnia virtutes vocant quia Dei ordinationi obsequantur”; I, xvii, 3.
26 “Namque is qui vitam nostram suis terminis limitavit, eius simul curam apud nos deposuit, eius conservandae rationibus subsidiisque instruxit, periculorum quoque praescios fecit, ne incautos opprimerent, cautiones ac remedias suggessit. Nunc perspicuum est quid sit nostri officii: nempe, si vitam nobis nostram tutandam commisit Dominus, ut eam tueamur; si subsidia offert, ut iis utamur; si pericula praemonstrat, ne temere irruamus; si remedia suppeditat, ne negligamus… . Tu cavendum non esse periculum colligis, quia, fatale quum non sit, simus etiam citra cautionem evasuri: Dominus autem ideo ut caveas iniungit, quia fataie tibi esse noluit. Non expendunt insani isti quod est sub oculis, consultandi cavendique artes inspiratas hominibus esse a Domino, quibus providentiae eius subserviant, in vitae propriae conservatione. Quemadmodum contra neglectu et socordia, quae illis iniunxit mala, sibi accersunt. Qui fit enim ut vir providus, dum sibi consulit, imminentibus etiam malis se explicet, stultus inconsulta temeritate pereat, nisi quod et stultitia et prudentia divinae sunt dispensationis instrumenta in utramque partem? Ideo nos celare futura omnia voluit Deus, ut tanquam dubiis occurramus, neque desinamus parata remedia opponere, donee aut superata fuerint, aut omnem curam superaverint“; I, xvii, 4.
27 “Nam inter Domini benedictiones reponet, si non destituetur subsidiis humanis, quibus ad incolumitatem suam utatur; itaque nee in capiendis consiliis cessabit, nee torpebit in ope eorum imploranda, quibus suppetere conspiciet unde iuvetur; sed a Domino sibi in manum offerri reputans quaecunque commodare sibi aliquid possunt creaturae, ipsas, tanquam legitima divinae providentiae instrumenta, ad usum applicabit. Ac, quum incertus sit quem sint exitum habitura quae negotii aggreditur (nisi quod in omnibus Dominum suo bono prospecturum novit) ad id studio aspirabit quod sibi expedire ducet, quantum intelligentia menteque assequi potest. Neque tamen in capiendis consiliis proprio sensu feretur; sed Dei sapientiae se commendabit ac permittet, ut eius ductu in rectum scopum dirigatur. Caeterum non in externis subsidiis ita eius fiducia subnitetur, ut si adsint in iis secure acquiescat; si desint, perinde ac destitutus trepidet“; I, xvii, 9.
28 “Inter has angustias annon oportet miserrimum esse hominem, utpote qui in vita semivivus anxium et languidum spiritum aegre trahat, non secus ac si imminentem perpetuo cervicibus gladium haberet? … Tali ergo trepidatione quid calamitosius fingas?” I, xvii, 10.
29 “At ubi lux ilia divinae providentiae semel homini pio affulsit, iam non extrema modo, qua ante premebatur, anxietate et formidine, sed omni cura relevatur ac solvitur. Ut enim merito fortunam horret, ita secure Deo sese audet permittere… . Unde id quaeso habent, quod illis nunquam excutitur sua securitas, nisi quia, ubi temere mundus volutari in speciem videtur, Dominum ibique operari sciunt, cuius opus confidunt sibi fore salutare? … extremum esse omnium miseriarum, providentiae ignorationem; summam beatitudinem in eiusdem cognitione esse sitam“; I, xvii, 11.
30 “Unde sequitur, ita exsulare a regno Dei, ut quaecunque ad beatam animae vitam spectant, in eo exstincta sunt, donee per regenerationis gratiam ipsa recuperet. In his sunt, fides, amor Dei, caritas erga proximos, sanctitatis et iustitiae studium. Haec omnia quum nobis restituat Christus, adventitia censentur, et praeter naturam; ideoque fuisse abolita colligimus”; II, ii, 12.
31 “ … distinctionem nobis proponere operae pretium est. Sit ergo haec distinctio, esse aliam quidem rerum terrenarum intelligentiam, aliam vero coelestium… . In priore genere sunt politia, oeconomia, artes omnes mechanicae, disciplinaeque liberales. In secundo, Dei ac divinae voluntatis cognitio, et vitae secundum eam formandae regula… . naturali quoque instinctu, ad fovendam conservandamque eam societatem propendet… . Hinc ille perpetuus tam gentium omnium, quam singulorum mortalium in leges consensus… . Manet tamen illud, inspersum esse universis semen aliquod ordinis politici”; II, ii, 13. I have included in this note the passages cited in my next paragraph also. Breen, , op. cit., 159-61Google Scholar, cited this and paragraphs 12 and 15 to demonstrate “The Precipitate of Humanism in Calvin the Reformer” (chap. 7); and Wendel, Francois, Calvin, Sources et Êvolution de sa Pensée Religieuse (Paris, 1950), comments, p. 143 Google Scholar, “L'humaniste que continnuait à sommeiller en lui se réveille soudain a notre surprise” and, p. 155, in reference to the surviving “seeds” of justice, “II y a là, n'en doutons pas, un souvenir très net de l'idée stoicienne d'une unité organique de la societé humaine.” Cf. also Bohatec, Josef, Budé und Calvin (Graz, 1950), 383-95.Google Scholar Calvin's clearest praise of the ancients is in II, ii, 15: “Imo ne sine ingenti quidem admiratione veterum scripta legere de his rebus poterimus; admirabimur autem, quia praeclara, ut sunt, cogemur agnoscere!”
32 Breen, op. cit., chaps. 3, 4, 5; Wendel, , op. cit., 8–20 Google Scholar; Bohatec, , op. cit., 439-64.Google Scholar
33 “Nemo prope reperitur cuius in arte aliqua perspicientia non se exserat. Neque sola suppetit ad discendum energia et facilitas, sed ad excogitandum in unaquaque arte novum aliquid, vel amplificandum et expoliendum quod alio praeeunte didiceris”; II, ii, 14.
34 “Quod autem alii praestant acumine, alii iudicio superant, aliis mens agilior est ad hanc vel illam artem discendam, in hac varietate gratiam suam nobis commendat Deus, ne sibi quisquam velut proprium arroget, quod ex mera illius liberalitate fluit… . Adde quod singulares motus pro cuiusque vocatione Deus instillat”; II, ii, 17.
35 “Neque tamen interim obliviscamur haec praestantissima divini spiritus esse bona, quae in publicum generis humani bonum, quibus vult, dispensat… . Neque est cur roget quispiam, quidnam cum spiritu commercii impiis, qui sunt a Deo prorsus alieni ? Nam quod dicitur spiritus Dei in solis fidelibus habitare, id intelligendum de spiritu sanctificationis, per quem Deo ipsi in templa consecramur. Neque tamen ideo minus replet, movet, vegetat omnia eiusdem spiritus virtute, idque secundum uniuscuiusque generis proprietatem, quam ei creationis lege attribuit. Quod si nos Dominus impiorum opera et ministerio, in physicis, dialecticis, mathematicis et reliquis id genus voluit adiutos, ea utamur; ne si Dei dona ultro in ipsis oblata negligamus, demus iustas ignaviae nostrae poenas. At vero, ne quis hominem valde beatum putet, quum sub elementis huius mundi tanta veritatis comprehendendae energia illi conceditur; simul addendum est, totam istam, et intelligendi vim, et intelligentiam quae inde consequitur, rem esse fluxam et evanidum coram Deo, ubi non subest solidum veritatis fundamentum“; II, ii, 16.
36 Breen makes much of the positive aspects of Calvin's doctrine of “common grace” as a bond linking him to the humanists (op. cit., 159). He does, however, subject secular capacities to providence and makes it a pious duty to cultivate them. I have analyzed the prevalence of a pessimistic note in some of the humanists in my Adversity's Noblemen (New York, 1940) and have emphasized a similar concern about the relation of vocation to happiness in “Petrarch's Views of the Individual and His Society,” Osiris, XI (1954), 168-98. Wendel indicates that one of Calvin's purposes in depicting the capacities and insights of the impious was to prove that men were without excuse for their sins, since they had a knowledge of good and evil (op. cit., 155).
37 Op. cit., 454-55.
38 Ibid., 463-65.