Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7czq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-21T23:05:28.583Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Sequencing in SLA

Phonological Memory, Chunking, and Points of Order

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 November 2008

Nick C. Ellis
Affiliation:
University of Wales, Bangor

Abstract

This paper provides an overview of sequencing in SLA. It contends that much of language acquisition is in fact sequence learning (for vocabulary, the phonological units of language and their phonotactic sequences: for discourse, the lexical units of language and their sequences in clauses and collocations). It argues that the resultant long-term knowledge base of language sequences serves as the database for the acquisition of language grammar. It next demonstrates that SLA of lexis, idiom, collocation, and grammar are all determined by individual differences in learners' ability to remember simple verbal strings in order. It outlines how interactions between short-term and long-term phonological memory systems allow chunking and the tuning of language systems better to represent structural information for particular languages. It proposes mechanisms for the analysis of sequence information that result in knowledge of underlying grammar. Finally, it considers the relations between this empiricist approach and that of generative grammar.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1996

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Aarts, J., & Meijs, W. (Eds.) (1990). Theory and practice in corpus linguistics, language and computers: Studies in practical linguistics, No. 4. Amsterdam: Rodopi.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adams, A.-M., & Gathercole, S. E. (1995). Phonological working memory and speech production in preschool children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 38, 403414.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, J. R. (1982). Acquisition of cognitive skill. Psychological Review, 89, 369406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baddeley, A. D. (1986). Working memory. Oxford: Clarendon.Google ScholarPubMed
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. In Bower, G. A. (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 8, pp. 4790). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. D., Papagno, C., & Vallar, G. (1988). When long-term learning depends on short-term storage. Journal of Memory and Language, 27, 586595.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barry, C., & Seymour, P. H. K. (1988). Lexical priming and sound-to-spelling contingency effects in nonword spelling. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 40(A), 540.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bates, E., & MacWhinney, B. (1981). Second language acquisition from a functionalist perspective. In Winitz, H. (Ed.), Native language and foreign language acquisition, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 379, 190214.Google Scholar
Bazell, C. E., Catford, J. C., Halliday, M. A. K., & Robins, R. H. (Eds.). (1966). In memory of J.R. Firth. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Berry, D. C. (1994). Implicit and explicit learning of complex tasks. In Ellis, N. (Ed.), Implicit and explicit learning of languages (pp. 147164). London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Berry, D. C., & Diennes, Z. (1993). Implicit learning: Theoretical and empirical issues. Hove, UK: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., & Bouchard, Ryan E. (1985). A metacognitive framework for the development of first and second language skills. In Forest-Pressley, D., MacKinnon, G., & Waller, T. (Eds.), Metacognition, cognition, and human performance (pp. 207252). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Blake, J., Austin, W., Cannon, M., Lisus, A., & Vaughan, A. (1994). The relationship between memory span and measures of imitative and spontaneous language complexity in preschool children. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 17, 91107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bohn, O. (1986). Formulas, frame structures, and stereotypes in early syntactic development: Some new evidence from L2 acquisition. Linguistics, 24, 185202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowerman, M. (1976). Semantic factors in the acquisition of rules for word use and sentence construction. In Morehead, D. & Morehead, A. (Eds.), Normal and deficient child language. Baltimore, MD: University Park Press.Google Scholar
Braine, M. D. S. (1976). The ontogeny of English phrase structure: The first place. In Ferguson, C. A. & Slobin, D. I. (Eds.), Studies of child language development (pp. 407420). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Wilson.Google Scholar
Braine, M. D. S. (1987). What is learned acquiring word classes-A step towards acquisition theory. In MacWhinney, B. (Ed.), Mechanisms of language acquisition (pp. 6588). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Bresnan, J. W. (Ed.). (1982). The mental representation of grammatical relations. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Brooks, L. R. (1978). Nonanalytic concept formation and memory for instances. In Rosch, E. & Lloyd, B. B. (Eds.), Cognition and categorization (pp. 169211). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Brooks, L. R., & Vokey, J. R. (1991). Abstract analogies and abstracted grammars: Comments on Reber (1989) and Mathews, et al. (1989). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 120, 316323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, G. D. A., & Hulme, C. (1992). Cognitive psychology and second-language processing: The role of short-term memory. In Harris, R. J. (Ed.), Cognitive processing in bilinguals (pp. 105122). Amsterdam: Elsevier (North-Holland).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burgess, N., & Hitch, G. J. (1992). Toward a network model of the articulatory loop. Journal of Memory and Language, 31, 429460.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, C. (1995, 03 31-04 2). Between lexis and grammar: Repeated word sequences and collocational frameworks in Spanish. Paper presented to the 5th Dyffryn Conference on Vocabulary and Lexis, Cardiff, UK.Google Scholar
Carr, T. H., & Curran, T. (1994). Cognitive factors in learning about structured sequences: Applications to syntax. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16, 205230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carroll, J. B., & Sapon, S. M. (1955). Modern Language Aptitude Test. New York: The Psychological Corporation/Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.Google Scholar
Charniak, E. (1993). Statistical language learning. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Chi, M. T. H. (1977). Age differences in memory span. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 23, 266281.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1963). Formal properties of grammars. In Luce, R. D., Bush, R. R., & Galanter, E. (Eds.), Handbook of mathematical psychology (pp. 323418). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of a theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1981). Lectures on Government and Binding. Dordrecht: Foris.Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1988). Language and problems of knowledge. The Managua Lectures. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1989). Some notes on economy of derivation and representation. MIT Working Papers in Linguistics, 10, 4374.Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1990). Language and mind. In Mellor, D. H. (Ed.), Ways of communicating (pp. 5680). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1992). A minimalist program for linguistic theory. MIT Occasional Papers in Linguistics, 1.Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1995). Bare phrase structure. In Webelhuth, G. (Ed.), Government and Binding Theory and the Minimalist Program (pp. 383420). Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Clahsen, H. (1984). The acquisition of German word order-A test case for cognitive approaches to L2 development. In Andersen, R. (Ed.), Second language: A crosslinguistic perspective (pp. 219242). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Coleridge, S. T. (1896). The table talk and omniana of Samuel Taylor Coleridge. London: G. Bell and Sons.Google Scholar
Cook, V. (1979). Aspects of memory in secondary school language learners. Interlanguage Studies Bulletin-Utrecht, 4, 161172.Google Scholar
Cook, V. J. (1994a). Linguistics and second language acquisition. Baisingstoke: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Cook, V. J. (1994b). The metaphor of access to Universal Grammar in L2 learning. In Ellis, N. (Ed.), Implicit and explicit learning of languages (pp. 477502). London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Coppetiers, R. (1987). Competence differences between native and near-native speakers. Language, 63, 545573.Google Scholar
Corder, S. P. (1973). Introducing applied linguistics. Harmondsworth: Penguin.Google Scholar
Crystal, D. (1987). The Cambridge encyclopaedia of language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Daneman, M., & Case, R. (1981). Syntactic form, semantic complexity, and short-term memory: Influences on children's acquisition of new linguistic structures. Developmental Psychology, 17, 367378.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Danks, J. H., & Gans, D. L. (1975). Acquisition and utilization of a rule structure. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 104, 201208.Google Scholar
Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Dienes, Z., Broadbent, D., & Berry, D. (1991). Implicit and explicit knowledge bases in artificial grammar learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 17, 875887.Google ScholarPubMed
Dulany, D. E. (1991). Conscious representation and thought systems. In Wyer, R. S. Jr., & Srull, T. K. (Eds.), Advances in social cognition (Vol. 4, pp. 97119). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Dulany, D. E., Carlson, R. A., & Dewey, G. I. (1984). A case of syntactical learning and judgment: How conscious and how abstract? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 113, 541555.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, N. C. (Ed.). (1990). Reading, phonological processing and STM: Interactive tributaries of development. Journal of Research in Reading, 13, 107122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, N. C. (1993). Rules and instances in foreign language learning: Interactions of explicit and implicit knowledge. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 5, 289318.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, N. C. (1994a). The cognitive psychology of developmental dyslexia. In Hales, G. (Ed.), Dyslexia matters: A celebratory contributed volume to honour T.R. Miles (pp. 5669). London: Whurr Publishers.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, N. C. (1994b). Consciousness in second language learning: Psychological perspectives on the role of conscious processes in vocabulary acquisition. AILA Review, 11, 3756.Google Scholar
Ellis, N. C. (1994c). Implicit and explicit learning of languages. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Ellis, N. C. (1994d). Implicit and explicit processes in language acquisition: An introduction. In Ellis, N. (Ed.), Implicit and explicit learning of languages (pp. 132). London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Ellis, N. C. (1994e). Longitudinal studies of spelling acquisition. In Brown, G. D. A. & Ellis, N. C. (Eds.), Handbook of spelling: Theory, process and intervention (pp. 155178). Chichester: Wiley.Google Scholar
Ellis, N. C. (1994f). Vocabulary acquisition: The implicit ins and outs of explicit cognitive mediation. In Ellis, N. (Ed.), Implicit and explicit learning of languages (pp. 211282). London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Ellis, N. C. (1995). The psychology of foreign language acquisition: Implications for CALL. International Journal of Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL), 8, 103128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, N. C. (in press). Consciousness in second language acquisition: A review of recent field studies and laboratory experiments. Language Awareness.Google Scholar
Ellis, N. C., & Beaton, A. (1993a). Factors affecting the learning of foreign language vocabulary: Imagery keyword mediators and phonological short-term memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 46A, 533558.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellis, N. C., & Beaton, A. (1993b). Psycholinguistic determinants of foreign language vocabulary learning. Language Learning, 43, 559617.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, N. C., & Laporte, N. (in press). Contexts of acquisition: Effects of formal instruction and naturalistic exposure on SLA. In de Groot, A. & Kroll, J. (Eds.), Tutorials in bilingualism: Psycholinguistic perspectives. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Ellis, N. C., & Large, B. (1987). The development of reading: As you seek so shall you find. British Journal of Psychology, 78, 128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, N. C., & Miles, T. R. (1981). A lexical encoding deficiency I: Experimental evidence. In Pavlidis, G. Th. & Miles, T. R. (Eds.), Dyslexia research and its applications to education (pp. 177216). Chichester: Wiley.Google Scholar
Ellis, N. C., & Sinclair, S. (in press). Working memory in the acquisition of vocabulary and syntax: Putting language in good order. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 48.Google Scholar
Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Elman, J. L. (1993). Learning and development in neural networks: The importance of starting small. Cognition, 48, 7199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Entwisle, D. R. (1966). Word associations of young children. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press.Google Scholar
Epstein, W. (1967). The influence of syntactical structure on learning. In Slamecka, N. J. (Ed.), Human learning and memory: Selected readings (pp. 391395). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Estes, W. K. (1972). An associative basis for coding and organization in memory. In Melton, A. W. & Martin, E. (Eds.), Coding processes in human memory (pp. 161190). Washington, DC: Winston.Google Scholar
Eubank, L. (Ed.). (1991). Point counterpoint: Universal Grammar in the second language. Amsterdam: Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eubank, L., & Gregg, K. R. (1995). “Et in Amygdala Ego”?: UG, (S)LA, and neurobiology. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 17, 3558.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finch, S., & Chater, N. (1994). Learning syntactic categories: A statistical approach. In Oaksford, M. & Brown, G. D. A. (Eds.), Neurodynamics and psychology (pp. 295321). London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Firth, J. R. (1957). Papers in Linguistics 1934–1951. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Flege, J. E. (1987). Effects of equivalence classification on the production of foreign language speech sounds. In James, A. & Leather, J. (Eds.), Sound patterns in second language acquisition (pp. 939). Dordrecht: Foris.Google Scholar
Fodor, J. A. (1983). The modularity of mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frith, U. (1985). Beneath the surface of developmental dyslexia. In Patterson, K.Coltheart, M., & Marshall, J. (Eds.), Surface dyslexia. London: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Garside, R., Leech, G., & Sampson, G. (1987). The computational analysis of English: A corpus based approach. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Gass, S. (1987). The resolution of conflicts among competing systems: A bidirectional perspective. Applied Psycholinguists, 8, 329350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gathercole, S. E., & Baddeley, A. D. (1989). Evaluation of the role of phonological STM in the development of vocabulary in children: A longitudinal study. Journal of Memory and Language, 29, 336360.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gathercole, S. E. & Baddeley, A. D. (1990). The role of phonological memory in vocabulary acquisition: A study of young children learning new names. British Journal of Psychology, 81, 439454.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gathercole, S. E., & Baddeley, A. D. (1993). Working memory and language. Hove, UK: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Gathercole, S. E., Willis, C. S., Baddeley, A. D., & Emslie, H. (1994). The Children's Test of Nonword Repetition: A test of phonological working memory. Memory, 2, 103127.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gathercole, S. E., Willis, C., Emslie, H., & Baddeley, A. D. (1991). The influence of number of syllables and wordlikeness on children's repetition of nonwords. Applied Psycholinguistics, 12, 349367.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hakuta, K. (1974). Prefabricated patterns and the emergence of structure in second language acquisition. Language Learning, 24, 287298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrington, M. (1987). Processing transfer: Language-specific strategies as a source of interlanguage variation. Applied Psycholinguistics, 8, 351378.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartley, T., & Houghton, G. (in press). A linguistically-constrained model of short-term memory for nonwords. Journal of Memory and Language.Google Scholar
Henning, G. H. (1974). Remembering foreign language vocabulary: Acoustic and semantic parameters. Language Learning, 23, 185196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Houghton, G. (1990). The problem of serial order: A neural network model of sequence learning and recall. In Dale, R.Mellish, C., & Zock, M. (Eds.), Current research in natural language generation (pp. 287319). London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Hylstenstam, K. (1977). Implicational patterns in interlanguage syntax variation. Language Learning, 27, 383411.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology. New York: Holt.Google Scholar
Johnston, M. (1985). Syntactic and morphological processes in learning English. Canberra: Commonwealth Development of Immigration and Ethnic Affairs.Google Scholar
Kilborn, K., & Cooreman, A. (1987). Sentence interpretation strategies in adult Dutch-English bilinguals. Applied Psycholinguistics, 8, 415431.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirsner, K. (1994). Implicit processes in second language learning. In Ellis, N. (Ed.), Implicit and explicit learning of languages (pp. 283312). London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Kiss, G. R. (1973). Grammatical word classes: A learning process and its simulation. In Bower, G. H. (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 7). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Kjellmer, G. (1991). A mint of phrases. In Aijmer, K. & Altenberg, B. (Eds.), English corpus linguistics: Studies in honour of Jan Svartvik. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Krashen, S., & Scarcella, R. (1978). On routines and patterns in language acquisition and performance. Language Learning, 28, 283300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krashen, S., & Terrell, T. (1983). The natural approach: Language acquisition in the classroom. Oxford: Pergamon Press.Google Scholar
LaBerge, D., & Samuels, S. J. (1974). Towards a theory of automatic information processing in reading. Cognitive Psychology, 6, 292323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Larsen-Freeman, D., & Long, M. H. (1991). An introduction to second language acquisition research. Harlow: Longman.Google Scholar
Leather, J., & James, A. (1991). The acquisition of second language speech. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 13, 305314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lieven, E. V. M., Pine, J. M., & Dresner, Barnes H. (1992). Individual differences in early vocabulary development: Redefining the referential-expressive dimension. Journal of Child Language, 19, 287310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Long, M. H. (1990). Maturational constraints on language development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 12, 251285.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Long, M. H. (1991). Focus on form: A design feature in language teaching. In deBot, K.Ginsberg, R. B., & Kramsch, C. (Eds.), Foreign language research in cross-cultural perspective (pp. 3952). Amsterdam: Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacWhinney, B. (1987). Applying the competition model to bilingualism. Applied Psycholinguistics, 8, 315327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacWhinney, B. (1992). Transfer and competition in second language learning. In Harris, R. J. (Ed.), Cognitive processing in bilinguals (pp. 371390). Amsterdam: North-Holland.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Major, R. C. (1987). A model for interlanguage phonology. In loup, G. & Weinberger, S. H. (Eds.), Interlanguage phonology: The acquisition of a second language sound system (pp. 101124). Cambridge, MA: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Marantz, A. (1995). The minimalist program. In Webelhuth, G. (Ed.), Government and Binding Theory and the Minimalist Program (pp. 349382). Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Maratsos, M. (1982). The child's construction of grammatical categories. In Wanner, E. & Gleitman, L. R. (Eds.), Language acquisition: The state of the art (pp. 240266). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Marchman, V. A., & Bates, E. (1994). Continuity in lexical and morphological development: A test of the critical mass hypothesis. Journal of Child Language, 21, 339366.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marslen-Wilson, W. D. (1987). Functional parallelism in spoken word-recognition. In Frauenfelder, U. H. & Tyler, L. K. (Eds.), Spoken word recognition (pp. 71102). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google ScholarPubMed
Mathews, R. C., Buss, R. R., Stanley, W. B., Blanchard-Fields, F., Cho, J.-R., & Druhan, B. (1989). The role of implicit and explicit processes in learning from examples: A synergistic effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 15, 10831100.Google Scholar
McCarthy, J. J., & Kirk, S. A. (1961). Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities. Urbana, IL: Institute for Research on Exceptional Children.Google Scholar
McDonald, J. (1987). Sentence interpretation in bilingual speakers of English and Dutch. Applied Psycholinguistics, 8, 379413.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLaughlin, B. (1987). Theories of second language acquisition. London: Edward Arnold.Google Scholar
Meara, P. (1980). Vocabulary acquisition: A neglected aspect of language learning. Language Teaching and Linguistics Abstracts, 13, 221246.Google Scholar
Meara, P. (1984). The study of lexis in interlanguage. In Davies, A., Criper, C., & Howatt, A. (Eds.), Interlanguage (pp. 225235). Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press.Google Scholar
Meier, R. P., & Bower, G. H. (1986). Semantic reference and phrasal grouping in the acquisition of a miniature phrase structure language. Journal of Memory and Language, 25, 492505.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meijs, W. (Ed.). (1987). Corpus linguistics and beyond: Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on English Language Research on Computerized Corpora. Amsterdam: Rodopi.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Melton, A. W. (1963). Implications of short-term memory for a general theory of memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 2, 121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miles, T. R., & Ellis, N. C. (1981). A lexical encoding deficiency II: Clinical observations. In Pavlidis, G. Th. & Miles, T. R. (Eds.), Dyslexia research and its applications to education (pp. 217244). Chichester: Wiley.Google Scholar
Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 8197.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, G. A., & Chomsky, N. (1963). Finitary models of language users. In Luce, R. D., Bush, R. R., & Galanter, E. (Eds.), Handbook of mathematical psychology (pp. 419491). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Morgan, J. L., Meier, R. P., & Newport, E. L. (1987). Structural packaging in the input to language learning: Contributions of prosodic and morphological marking of phrases in the acquisition of language. Cognitive Psychology, 19, 498550.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morgan, J. L., & Newport, E. L. (1981). The role of constituent structure in the induction of an artificial language. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 20, 6785.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morton, J. (1967). A singular lack of incidental learning. Nature, 215, 203204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nattinger, J. R. (1980). A lexical phrase grammar for ESL. TESOL Quarterly, 14, 337344.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nattinger, J. R., & DeCarrico, J. (1989). Lexical phrases, speech acts and teaching conversation. In Nation, P. & Carter, N. (Eds.), Vocabulary acquisition. AILA Review, 6. Amsterdam: Free University Press.Google Scholar
Newell, A. (1980). Harpy, production systems, and human cognition. In Cole, R. A. (Ed.), Perception and production of fluent speech (pp. 289380). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Newell, A. (1990). Unified theories of cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Newell, A., & Rosenbloom, P. (1981). Mechanisms of skill acquisition and the law of practice. In Anderson, J. R. (Ed.), Cognitive skills and their acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Newport, E. L. (1990). Maturational constraints on language learning. Cognitive Science, 14, 1128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Odlin, T. (1989). Language transfer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paap, K. R., McDonald, J. E., Schvaneveldt, R. W., & Noel, R. W. (1987). Frequency and pronunciability in visually presented naming and lexical decision tasks. In Coltheart, M. (Ed.), Attention and performance: XII. The psychology of reading (pp. 221244). London: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Papagno, C., Valentine, T., & Baddeley, A. (1991). Phonological short-term memory and foreign-language vocabulary learning. Journal of Memory and Language, 30, 331347.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pawley, A., & Syder, F. H. (1983). Two puzzles for linguistic theory: Nativelike selection and nativelike fluency. In Richards, J. C. & Schmidt, R. W. (Eds.), Language and communication (pp. 191225). London: Longman.Google Scholar
Perruchet, P., & Pacteau, C. (1990). Synthetic grammar learning: Implicit rule abstraction or explicit fragmentary knowledge? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 119, 264275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peters, A. M. (1983). The units of language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Peters, A. M. (1995). Strategies in the acquisition of syntax. In Fletcher, P. & MacWhinney, B. (Eds.), The handbook of child language (pp. 462482). Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Pine, J. M., & Lieven, E. V. M. (1993). Reanalyzing rote-learned phrases: Individual differences in the transition to multi-word speech. Journal of Child Language, 20, 551571.Google Scholar
Pinker, S. (1987). The bootstrapping problem in language acquisition. In MacWhinney, B. (Ed.), Mechanisms of language acquisition (pp. 399442). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Reber, A. S. (1976). Implicit learning of synthetic languages: The role of instructional set. Journal of Experimental Psychology, Human Learning and Memory, 2, 8894.Google Scholar
Reber, A. S. (1993). Implicit learning and tacit knowledge: An essay on the cognitive unconscious. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Reber, A. S., Kassin, S. M., Lewis, S., & Cantor, G. W. (1980). On the relationship between implicit and explicit modes in the learning of a complex rule structure. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 6, 492502.Google Scholar
Reddy, D. R. (1980). Machine models of speech perception. In Cole, R. A. (Ed.), Perception and production of fluent speech (pp. 215242). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Renouf, A., & Sinclair, J. McH. (1991). Collocational frameworks in English. In Aijmer, K. & Altenberg, B. (Eds.), English corpus linguistics: Studies in honour of Jan Svartvik. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Reynell, J. K. (1983). Reynell developmental language scales manual (rev. ed.). Windsor: NFER-Nelson.Google Scholar
Rumelhart, D., & McClelland, J. (Eds.). (1986). Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition: Vol. 2. Psychological and biological models (pp. 272326). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Rutherford, W. (1983). Language typology and language transfer. In Gass, S. & Selinker, L. (Eds.), Language transfer in language learning. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Rutherford, W. (1994). SLA: Universal Grammar and language learnability. In Ellis, N. (Ed.), Implicit and explicit learning of languages (pp. 503522). London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Sampson, G. (1987). Probabilistic models of analysis. In Garside, R., Leech, G., & Sampson, G. (Eds.), The computational analysis of English. Harlow, Essex: Longman.Google Scholar
Scarborough, H. S. (1991). Early syntactic development of dyslexic children. Annals of Dyslexia, 41, 207221.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmidt, R. (1992). Psychological mechanisms underlying second language fluency. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 14, 357385.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmidt, R. (1994). Implicit learning and the cognitive unconscious: Of artificial grammars and SLA. In Ellis, N. (Ed.), Implicit and explicit learning of languages (pp. 165210). London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Schreuder, R., & Weltens, B. (1993). The bilingual lexicon. Amsterdam: Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schumann, J. (1978). The pidginization process: A model for second language acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Schwartz, R. G., Leonard, L. B., Wilcox, M. J., & Folger, M. K. (1980). Again and again: Reduplication in child phonology. Journal of Child Language, 7, 7587.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scovel, T. (1988). A time to speak: A psycholinguistic inquiry into the critical period for human speech. Cambridge, MA: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Seibert, L. C. (1927). An experiment in learning French vocabulary. Journal of Educational Psychology, 18, 294309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Servan-Schreiber, E., & Anderson, J. R. (1990). Learning artificial grammars with competitive chunking. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 16, 592608.Google Scholar
Service, E. (1992). Phonology, working memory, and foreign-language learning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 45 A, 2150.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shanks, D. R., & St. John, M. F. (1994). Characteristics of dissociable human learning systems. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 17, 367394.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shipstone, E. I. (1960). Some variables affecting pattern conception. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 74(17), 141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sinclair, J. (1991). Corpus, concordance, collocation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Slobin, D. I. (1973). Cognitive prerequisites for the development of grammar. In Ferguson, C. A. & Slobin, D. I. (Eds.), Studies of child language development (pp. 175208). New York: Holt Rinehart Winston.Google Scholar
Smith, N. V., & Tsimpli, I.-M. (1995). The mind of a savant: Language learning and modularity. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Snowling, M., Chiat, S., & Hulme, C. (1991). Words, nonwords, and phonological processes: Some comments on Gathercole, Willis, Emslie, & Baddeley. Applied Psycholinguistics, 12, 369373.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Söderman, T. (1989). Word associations of foreign language learners and native speakers-A shift in response type and its relevance for a theory of lexical development. Scandinavian Working Papers on Bilingualism, 8, 114121.Google Scholar
Söderman, T. (1993). Word associations of foreign language learners and native speakers-Different response types and their relevance to lexical development. In Hammarberg, B. (Ed.), Problems, process, and product in language learning. Åbo, Finland: Åbo Academi.Google Scholar
Sparks, R. L., Ganschow, L., & Javorsky, J. (1992). Diagnosing and accommodating the foreign language learning difficulties of college students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 7, 150160.Google Scholar
Sparks, R. L., Ganschow, L., Javorsky, J., Pohlman, J., & Patton, J. (1992). Test comparisons among students identified as high-risk, low-risk, and learning disabled in high-school foreign language courses. Modern Language Journal, 76, 142159.Google Scholar
Speidel, G. E. (1993). Phonological short-term memory and individual differences in learning to speak: A bilingual case study. First Language, 13, 6991.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Terrell, T. (1991). The role of grammar instruction in a communicative approach. The Modern Language Journal, 75, 5263.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tomasello, M. (1992). First verbs: A case study of early grammatical development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treiman, R., & Danis, C. (1988). Short-term memory errors for spoken syllables are affected by the linguistic structure of the syllables. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 14, 145152.Google ScholarPubMed
Vokey, J. R., & Brooks, L. R. (1992). Salience of item knowledge in learning artificial grammars. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 18, 328344.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1967). WPPSl manual. Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence. New York: The Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Weinert, S. (1992). Deficits in acquiring language structure: The importance of using prosodic cues. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 6, 545571.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, L. (1989). Universal Grammar and second language acquisition. Amsterdam: Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winter, B., & Reber, A. S. (1994). Implicit learning and the acquisition of natural languages. In Ellis, N. (Ed.), Implicit and explicit learning of languages (pp. 115146). London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Wong-Fillmore, L. (1976). The second time around. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, Stanford, CA.Google Scholar
Zobl, H. (1986). Word order typology, lexical government, and the prediction of multiple, graded effects in L2 word order. Language Learning, 36, 159183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zobl, H. (1995). Converging evidence for the acquisition-learning distinction. Applied Linguistics, 16, 3536.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zobl, H., & Liceras, J. (1994). Functional categories and acquisition orders. Language Learning, 44, 159180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar