¹ The preparation of this paper would not have been possible without grants from the Research Fund committee and much help from the Librarians of the Queen’s University of Belfast, to whom I should like to extend my deep gratitude. For America, see the work of the Lynds summarized and revised in Caplow, T., ed., All Faithful People: Change and Continuity in Middletown’s Religion (Minneapolis, 1983), pp. 39–42 Google Scholar, and the comments in Niebuhr, H. R., Williams, D. D. and Gustafson, J. M., The Purpose of the Church and its Ministry (New York, 1956), pp. 31, 48–53Google Scholar. For England, see the works cited by Towler, R., ‘The Social Status of the Anglican Minister’ in Robertson, R., ed., Sociology of Religion (Harmondsworth, 1969), pp. 443–50 Google Scholar, and A Russell, The Clerical Profession (London, 1980), pt. 3.

² Blizzard, S., ‘The Minister’s Dilemma’, The Christian Century, 73 (1956), pp. 508–10 Google Scholar, and other work summarized by Johnson, P. E., Psychology of Religion (Nashville, 1959), at pp. 260–6, 286–7 Google Scholar; Ranson, S., Bryman, A, Hinings, B., Clergy, Ministers and Priests (London, 1977), cap. 4.Google Scholar

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⁴ Quoted by Peter Burke in ‘Religion and Secularization’, New Cambridge Modem History XIII Companion Volume (Cambridge, 1979), p. 294; see pp. 292–5 for further discussion of this point.

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⁸ These exclusions are bound to lead to anomalies, for example where Protestant nonconformist clergy performed a similar or even a complementary function to established clergy—see Sheils, W. J., ‘Oliver Heywood and his Congregation’, SCH 23 (1986), pp. 276–7 Google Scholar; or where regulars provided an unusually high proportion of the Catholic parish clergy, as in parts of Central Europe: Evans, R. J. W., The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy 1550–1700 (Oxford, 1979), pp. 123–33, 185–6; but this paper is already too broad, and lines have to be drawn somewhere.Google Scholar

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¹⁰ Ainslie, Doctrines, pp. 40–56; Allmen, Saint Ministère, cap. 6; Hughes, P. E., Theology of the English Reformers (London,1965)Google Scholar, cap. 5. See also Hieron, S., The Dignitie of Preaching (London, 1615), and the discussion of preaching by Patrick Collinson in his contribution to this volume at pp. 185–220 Google Scholar.

¹¹ Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent, ed. H. J. Schroeder (London, 1960), pp.25, 105–6, 110, 152–3, 173, 175–6, 195–8, 246–8; for examples of national or regional statements, see P. Broutin, La Réforme pastorale en France au XVIIe Siècle, 2 vols (Tournai, 1956), 1, passim and 2, pp. 3–34; J. Ferté, La Vie Religieuse dans les Campagnes Parisiennes (1622-1695) (Paris, 1962), pp. 26–7.

¹² McNeill, J. T., A History of the Cure of Souls (London, 1952), caps. 8–12 Google Scholar.

¹³ Bossy, J. A., Christianity in the West 1400–1700 (Oxford,1985), p. 98.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Ibid., pp. 118–20; on catechizing in general, see the works cited by Dhotel, J.-C., Les Origines du Catéchisme Moderne (Paris, 1967), p. 10 n. 6Google Scholar; Germain, E., >Langages de la Foi (Paris, 1972)Langages+de+la+Foi+(Paris,+1972)>Google Scholar; and ‘Transmettre La Foi: XVIe-XXe siècles’, Actes du 109e Congrès National des Sociétés Savantes, Dijon 1984 (Paris, 1984), pt. 1.

¹⁵ In England, for example, P. Tudor, ‘Religious Instruction for Children and Adolescents in the Early English Reformation’, JEH 35 (1984), pp. 391–413; I. M. Green, ‘“For Children in Yccrcs and Children in Understanding”: The Emergence of the English Catechism under Elizabeth and the Early Stuarts’, ibid., 37 (1986), pp. 397–425; F. C. Mather, ‘Georgian Churchmanship Reconsidered’, ibid., 36 (1985), pp. 279–80; Wiltshire Returns to the Bishop’s Visitation Queries of 1783, ed. M. Ransome (Wiltshire Record Society, 27, 1971), passim.

¹⁶ Gawthrop, R. and Strauss, G., ‘Protestantism and Literacy in Early Modern Germany’, P & P 104 (1984), pp. 31–55 Google Scholar; Johansson, E., ‘The History of Literacy in Sweden’, in Graff, H. J., ed., Literacy and Social Development in the West: A Reader (Cambridge, 1981), pp. 151–82 Google Scholar; Orpen, P. K., ‘Schoolmastering as a Profession in the Seventeenth Century’, History of Education, 6 (1977). PP. 183–94 Google Scholar; Scotland, J., The History of Scottish Education, 2 vols (London, 1969), 1, pp. 114–16 Google Scholar; Smout, T.C., A History of the Scottish People 1560–1830 (London, 1972), pp. 81–4 Google Scholar; Delumeau, J., Le Catholicisme entre Luther et Voltaire (Paris,1971), pp. 288–92.Google Scholar

¹⁷ On the education and training of the clergy, see below pp. 264–70; for late medieval graduates, Karant-Nunn, S., ‘Luther’s Pastors: The Reformation in the Ernbestine Countryside’, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 69 (1979), pp. 14–16 Google Scholar; and Bowker, M., The Secular Clergy in the Diocese of Lincoln 1495–1520 (Cambridge, 1958), pp. 44–8, 78–9.Google Scholar

¹⁸ See below pp. 257–8 for Sweden and France. For Germany see the diary of a country minister in late eighteenth-century Baden: Schmitthenner, A., Das Tagebuch meines Urgrassvaters (Freiburg, 1922); and for EnglandGoogle Scholar, Hill, C., Society and Puritanism in Pre-Revolutionary England (London,1966), pp. 32–43 Google Scholar, and Russell, Clerical Profession, caps. 10–14.

¹⁹ Kamen, H., European Society 1500–1700 (London, 1984)Google Scholar; Cohn, H.J., ed., Government in Reformation Europe(London, 1971)Google Scholar; Shennan, J. H., The Origins of the Modern European State(London, 1974);Bossy, Christianity, pp. 153–61.Google Scholar

²⁰ On social origins sec I. M. Green, ‘Career Prospects and Clerical Conformity in the Early Stuart Church’, P & P 90 (1981), pp. 73–8; Fulbrook, M. Piety and Politics: Religion and the Rise of Absolutism in England, Wurttemherg and Prussia (Cambridge, 1983), pp. 79–80 Google Scholar, 86; M. Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus: A History of Sweden 1611–32, 2 vols (London, 1953–8), 1, p. 391 n. 1; L. Pèrouas, ‘Le Nombre des Vocations Sacerdotales Est-il un Critère Valable en Sociologie Religieuse aux XVIIe et XVIIIe Siècles?’, Actes du Congrès National des Sociétés Savantes. Poitiers 1962 (1963), p. 37; A. Viala, ‘Suggestions Nouvelles pour une Histoire Sociale du Clergé aux Temps Modernes’, Etudes d’Histoire du Droit Canonique Dédiées à G. Le bras, 2 vols (Paris, 1965), 2, pp. 1471–81; A. Molinier, ‘Curés et Paroissiens de la Contre-Réforme’, in J. Delumeau, ed.. Histoire Vécue du Peuple Chrétien, 2 vols (Toulouse, 1979), 2, p. 70, and L. Pérouas, ‘Clergé et Peuple Creusois du XVe au XXe siècle’, ibid., 2, pp. 136–7; P. T. Hoff man, Church and Community in the Diocese of Lyon 1500–1789 (New Haven, 1984), pp. 156–8.

²¹ Comments on clerical standards of living are bound to be impressionistic in the absence of comparative studies over different periods and different areas, but see the following: J.-F. Bergier, ‘Salaires des Pasteurs de Genève au XVIe Siècle”, Mélanges D’Histoire du XVIe Siècle Offerts à Henri Meylan (Geneva, 1970), pp. 159–78; F. W. Brooks, ‘The Social Position of the Parson in the Sixteenth Century’, Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 10 (1945-7), pp. 23–37; Green, ‘Career Prospects’, pp. 78–88, and ‘The first years of Queen Anne’s Bounty’, in R. O’Day and F. Heal, eds.. Princes and Paupers in the English Church, 1500–1800 (Leicester, 1981), pp. 231–54; O’Day, ‘Anatomy’, pp. 53–6; Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus, 1, pp. 392–4; Delumeau, Catholicisme (Paris, 1971), pp. 211–13, 273–4; Ferté, Vie Religieuse, pp. 43, 48; Hoffman, Church and Community, pp. 159–60; W. R. Foster, The Church before the Covenants (Edinburgh, 1975), cap. 8, and Bishop and Presbytery (London, 1958), pp. 108–10; but cf. Fulbrook, Piety, pp. 84–6 (as opposed to 77–9) and E. Sagarra, A Social History of Germany 1648–1914 (London, 1977), p. 117.

²² H. McLeod, Religion and the People of Western Europe 1789–1970 (Oxford, 1981); W. Doyle, The Old European Order 1660–1800 (Oxford, 1978), pp. 156–61; R. Lennard, Rural England 1086–1135) (Oxford, 1959), p. 307.

²³ Mousnier, R., Social Hierarchies: 1450 to the Present Day (London, 1973); see also the articles by Wrightson, Thompson and Mettam in History Today, 37 (1987) and the references therein, and K. Wrightson, ‘The Social Order of Early Modern England: Three Approaches’ in L. Bonfield, R. Smith and Wrightson, eds.. The World We Have Gained (Oxford, 1986), cap. 7.Google Scholar

²⁴ As previous note, and J. H. Hexter, “The Education of die Aristocracy in the Renaissance’, in Reappraisals in History (London, 1961); L. Stone, ‘The Educational Revolution in England, 1540–1640’, P& P 28 (1966), pp. 57–70; R. Mousnier, The Institutions of France under the Absolute Monarchy, 1598–1789: Society and the State (Chicago/London, 1979), caps. 1, 4, 5; I. A. A. Thompson, ‘Neo-noble Nobility: Concepts of Hidalguia in Early Modern Castile’, European History Quarterly, 15 (1985).

²⁵ Bornfert, R., La Rèforme Pastorale du Culte à Strasbourg au XVIe siècle(Studies in Medieval and Reformation Thought 28, Leiden, 1981), p. 419; Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus, I, p. 394.Google Scholar

²⁶ Bruford, W.H., Germany in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge,1965), p. 255; W. H. Williams, ‘Voltaire and the Utility of the Lower Clergy’, Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century, 58 (1967), pp. 1869–91.Google Scholar

²⁷ Burke, P., Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe(London,1978)Google Scholar; Thomas, K., Religion and the Decline of Magic (Harmondsworth, 1971), pp. 797–8 Google Scholar.

²⁸ K. Wrightson, English Society 1580–1680 (London, 1982), pp. 13–14, 222–8; E. P. Thompson, ‘Patrician Society, Plebeian Culture’, Journal of Social History, 7 (1974), pp. 382–405; R. Muchembled, Popular Culture and Elite Culture in France 1400–1750, tr. L Cochrane (Baton Rouge/London, 1985), pp. 208–23; Hoffman, Church and Community, caps. 3–4. For Sweden sec next note, for Catalonia and Sicily n. 96; the idea of bridge-building is taken a stage further, below pp. 277–85.

²⁹ Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus, 1, p. 392, and cf. p. 395, and cap. 7 passim; see also M. Roberts, ed., Sweden’s Age of Greatness 1632–1718 (London, 1973), pp. 115–19, 132–73.

³⁰ O. Hufton, ‘The French Church’, in W. H. Callahan and D. Higgs, eds., Church and Society in Catholic Europe of the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge, 1979), p. 24; see also Tackett, T., Priest and Parish in Eighteenth-Century France (Princeton, 1977), pp. 155–66, and Molinier, ‘Curès’, pp. 73–4.77-8. 86–7.Google Scholar

³¹ Peter’s actions are well described in J. Cracraft, The Church Reform of Peter the Great (London, 1971) and Freeze, G. L., The Russian Levites: Parish Clergy in the Eighteenth Century(Cambridge, Mass., 1977).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³² Baxter, R., Gildas Salvianus. The Reformed Pastor(London,1655), cap. 1, section 1: 5; it is interesting that Baxter devotes two-fifths of his text to catechizing and household instruction and very little to preaching compared to Bernard: see Collinson, above pp. 195–6.Google Scholar

³³ Herbert, G., A Priest to the Temple Or The Countrey Parson (1652), caps. 4–5 and passim.Google Scholar

³⁴ Broutin, Réforme Pastorale, 1, pp. 44–5, 227–30, and pt 3 passim; A. Playoust-Chaussis, La Vie Religieuse dans le Diocèse de Boulogne au XVIII’ Siècle (Arras, 1976), pp. 177–8; P. Sage, Le ‘Bon Prêtre’ dans la Littérature Française (Geneva, 1951); Williams, ‘Voltaire’, art. cit.; and see M.-L Fracard, ‘Le Recrutement du Clergé Séculier dans la Région Niortaise au XVllle Siècle’, Revue d’Histoire de L’Eglise de France, 57(1971), pp. 262—4.

³⁵ T. Tackett, ‘The Citizen Priests: Politics and Ideology among the Parish Clergy of die Eighteenth Century’, Studies in Eighteenth-Century Culture, 7 (1978), pp. 307–28.

³⁶ Jewel, J., The Works (Parker Society, 4 vols,Cambridge, 1845-50), 2, pp. 1130, 1022.Google Scholar

³⁷ Gerard, P., A Preparation to the Most Holie Ministerie(London, 1593), pp. 36–8 Google Scholar; Bucanus, G., Institutions of Christian Religion (London,1606), pp. 562–4 Google Scholar

³⁸ Richard Rogers, Samuel Smith and Lewis Thomas are referred to as ‘preacher’ on the title-pages of some of their printed works; Thomas Shephard and Samuel How are referred to as ‘pastor’ in their The Sincere Convert (London, 1648) and The Sufficience of the Spirits Teaching (London, 1655); some British authors, even episcopalians, used die term ‘presbyter’, as in the catechism published in Edinburgh in 1712 by T.M. (‘a suffering presbyter of the Church of Scotland’) and the Primitive Catechism published by Daniel Whiston (‘a presbyter of the Church of England’) in London in 1718. For the German ‘pfarrer’, ‘praedicant’ and other terms, see Vogler, B., Le Clergé Protestant Rhénan au Siècle de la Réforme (1555-1619) (Paris, 1976), p. 121 Google Scholar.

³⁹ See n. 21 above; also Luciano Allegra, Ricerche sulla Cultura del Clero in Piemonte. Le Biblioteche Parrocchiali nell’Archidiocesi di Torine. sec XVII-XVIII (Turin, 1978); L. Pérouas, La Diocèse de la Rochelle de 1648 à 1724 (Paris, 1964), pp. 203, 263–4; D. Julia, ‘Le Prêtre au XVIII^e Siècle’, Recherches de Science Religieuse, 58 (1970), pp. 521–34; Tackett, Prior and Parish, pp. 89–92; Pruett, J. H., The Parish Clergy under the Later Stuarts(Urbana, 1978), pp. 45–6 and cap. 5Google Scholar; Chadwick, O., The Popes and European Revolution(Oxford, 1981), pp. 103-9, 118; in England, not only fashionable Anglican authors like Andrewes but also nonconformist authors such as Richard Baxter, John Bunyan and Matthew Henry had their features reproduced in their works. For satirical printsGoogle Scholar, see Miller, J., Religion in the Popular Prints 1600–1832 (Cambridge, 1986).Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Russell, Clerical Profession, pp. 33–4;Tackett, Priest and Parish, pp. 74–5, 88–91, 167–8; Ferté, Vie Religieuse, pp. 179, 191–4; T.-J. Schmitt, L’Organisation Ecclésiastique et la Pratique Reli gieuse Jans l’Archidiaconé d’Autun de 1655 à 1750 (Autun, 1957), pp. 129–30; Chadwick, Popes, p. 108; Gilbert White, The Natural History of Selbome (London, 1788–9).

⁴¹ Heeney, Different Kind, cap. 2.

⁴² Delumeau, Catholicisme; Pérouas, La Rochelle; Muchembled, Popular Culture; Bossy, Christianity; and P. Chaunu, Le Temps des Réformes (Paris, 1975).

⁴³ The differences I am thinking of are not simply matters of the ratio of clergy to parishioners, the background and education of ordinands or the size and value of livings to which they were appointed, but also matters such as the extent of stratification between upper and lower clergy and the strength of rivals such as regulars or nonconformist preachers.

⁴⁴ While social standing might have been important to the self-confidence and thus the performance of the clergy (unless humility triumphed over worldliness), the laity were surely just as likely to be offended by a rise in clerical standards as impressed by them to the point of listening more carefully to what the minister said.

⁴⁵ See above nn. 9–12, 20, and below pp. 265, 271–3. Preliminary attempts to assess calling and the concept of the ministry can be found in Vogler, Clergé Protestant, pp. 52–3, 117–34; T. E. Weir, ‘Pastoral Care in the Church of Scodand in the Seventeenth Century’ (unpublished University of Edinburgh Ph.D. thesis, 1960); and F. Bussby, ‘A History and Source Book for the Training for the Ministry in the Church of England, 1511–1717’ (unpublished University of Durham M. Litt. thesis, 1952), cap. 6.

⁴⁶ Bossy, Wastem Christianity, p. 66; P. Heath, Church and Realm 1272–1461 (London, 1988); A. K. McHardy, ‘Liturgy and Propaganda in the Diocese of Lincoln during the Hundred Years War’, SCH 18 (1982), pp. 215–27, and ‘Clerical Taxation in Fifteenth-Century England: the Clergy as Agents of the Crown’, in Dobson, R., ed., The Church, Politics and Patronage in the Fifteenth Century(Gloucester, 1984), pp. 168–92 Google Scholar.

⁴⁷ Binz, L., Vie Religieuse et Réforme Ecclésiastique dans le Diocèse de Genève …(1378-1450) (Mémoires et Documents Publiés par la Société d’Histoire et d’Archéologie de Genève 41, Geneva, 1973), pp. 358–72; Hoffman, Church and Community, pp. 19–20, 50, 98–100.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Above p. 193.

⁴⁹ P. Richè, ‘La Pastorale Populaire en Occident VIe-Xle Siècles’, reprinted in Instruction et Vie Religieuse dans le Haut Moyen Age (London, 1981), pp. 195–221; Hamilton, B., Religion in the Medieval West (London, 1986), pp. 70–3, 108–11, 133–41.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ It is not so much that most clergy have lost the social status of gentleman or the roles of doctor, counsellor, etc., as that most probably never had them; and by the nature of both their calling (inner and outer) and the difficulty of assessing the quality of their ‘work’, especially the sacerdotal, it is hard to see how they can be compared with occupations now widely accepted as professions. Moreover given a sense of vocation among clergy, the questionnaires used by some of the sociologists mentioned in n. 2 above were bound to produce answers that gave administrative chores a very low priority.

⁵¹ The best general introductions to training schemes are L.-E. Halkin, ‘La Formation du Clergé Catholique après le Concile de Trente’, in Baker, D., ed., Miscellanea Historiae Ecclesiastical, 3 (Louvain, 1970), pp. 109–25 Google Scholar; Meylan, H., ‘Le Recrutement et la Formation des Pasteurs dans les Eglises Réformées du XVIe Siècle’, ibid., pp. 127–50; and Vogler, Clergé Protestant, cap. 1.Google Scholar

⁵² For example, M. Brecht, ‘Herkunft und Ausbildung der Protestantischen Geistlichen des Herzogtums Wurttemberg im 16 Jahrhundert’, Zeilschrift fur Kirkengeschichte, 80 (1949), p. 170; Karant-Nunn,’Luther’s Pastors’, p. 13; Ferté, Vie Religieuse, p. 148.

⁵³ Meylan, ‘Recrutement’, pp. 131, 134; Vogler, Clergé Protestant, pp. 50–3; Foster, Bishop and Presbytery, pp. 89–93; Ferté, Vie Religieuse, pp. 160-;9; A. Schaer, Le Clergè Paroissial Catholique en Haute Alsace sous l’Ancien Régime (1648-1766) (Paris, 1966), p. 130; Fracard, ‘Recrutement’, pp. 245–55; Chadwick, Popes, p. 117.

⁵⁴ e.g., Tackett, Priest and Parish, pp. 54–71, 79, and Pruett, Parish Clergy, p. 35; funds could be eked out by acting as servant to richer students: ibid., pp. 39–40, and Bruford, Germany, pp. 247–8. On sums demanded before ordination see below n. 76.

⁵⁵ See above n. 20, and Meylan, ‘Recrutement’, pp. 144–7; Vogler, ‘Formation et Recrutement du Clergé Protestant’, in Misc. Hist. Eccles., 3, p. 219; D. Julia, ‘Le Clergé Paroissial dans le Diocès de Reims à la Fin du XVIIIe Siècle’, Revue d’Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine, 13 (1966), pp. 206–9; Playoust-Chaussis, Vie Religieuse, pp. 150–2, 286.

⁵⁶ Two recent surveys have useful bibliographies: G. Mialeret and J. Vial, eds., Histoire Mondiale de L’Education, 4 vols (Paris, 1981), 2, pt 2, and J. Bowen, A History of Western Education, 3 vols (London, 1972–81), 3, caps. 4–5. For regional variation, see R. Charrier, D. Julia and M.-M. Compère, eds., L’Education en France du XVIe au XVIIIe Siècle (Paris, 1978), pp. 23–5, and compare Hoffman, Church and Community, pp. 112–4 and Tackett, Priest and Parish, pp. 72–4-

⁵⁷ Vogler, Clergé Protestant, pp. 46–57; Pruett, Parish Clergy, pp. 42–5, but see J. G Shuler, ‘The Pastoral and Ecclesiastical Administration of the Diocese of Durham 1721–1771’ (unpublished University of Durham Ph.D. thiesis, 1976), cap. 6; Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus, 1, pp. 470–6, and ‘The Swedish Church’, in Sweden’s Age of Greatness, pp. 147–8.

⁵⁸ In eighteenth-century France graduates comprised as little as a sixth of the parish clergy in more remote dioceses and perhaps a half nearer university cities: Tackett, Priest and Parish, p. 76 n. 14. See also ibid., pp. 72–5;Schaer, ClergéParoissial, p. 122; J.-P. Gutton, ‘Notes sur le Recrutement du Clergé Séculier dans l’Archidiocèse de la Région Lyonnaise’, Bulletin du Centre D’Histoire Economique et Sociale de la Région Lyonnaise, 2 (1974), p. 19; and Chadwick, Popes, p. 118. For graduates securing higher office, see R. L Kagan, ‘Universities in Castile 1500–1700’, P&P 49(1970), pp. 51–2, 59, 62; Hoffman, Church and Community, pp. 10–14; M. C. Perronet, Les Evêques de L’Ancienne France (Lille, 1977), pp. 4–15.

⁵⁹ Karant-Nunn, ‘Luther’s Pastors’, pp. 19–20; Pruett, Parish Clergy, pp. 44–5; Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus, 1, p. 391; and see below pp. 278–80. C Webster, ‘The Curriculum of the Grammar Schools and Universities 1500–1660: A Critical Review of the Literature”, History of Education, 4 (1975), pp. 56–8.

⁶⁰ See below p. 273.

⁶¹ Vogler, Clergé Protestant, p. 72; Halkin, ‘Formation’, pp. 109—25; A. Dégert, Histoire des Séminaires Français jusqu’à la Révolution, 2 vols (París, 1912); Sagarra, Social History, p. 122; Chadwick, Popes, pp. 112–14; Callahan and Higgs, Church and Society, pp. 56, 131.

⁶² Meylan, ‘Recrutement’, pp. 132–3; C. A. Tukker, ‘The Recruitment and Training of Protestant Ministers in the Netherlands in the Sixteenm Century’, Misc. Hist. Eccles., 3, pp. 202–13; Halkin, ‘Formation’, pp. 120, 122, 124; Dégert, Histoire des Séminaires, i, pp. 117–254; Broutin, Réforme Pastorale, 2, pp. 117–254, 507–40; Ferté, Vie Religieuse, pp. 152—4, 157—9.

⁶³ Webster, ‘Curriculum’, pp. 58–60; Green, ‘Career Prospects’, pp. 109–10; Kagan, ‘Universities’, p. 54; Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus, 1, pp. 454–5; and see previous note.

⁶⁴ J. Verger, ‘Les Universités à l’Epoque Moderne’, in Histoire Mondiale, 2, p. 249; Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus, 1, pp. 455, 474–5; Kagan, ‘Universities’, p. 59; R. Briggs, ‘The Catholic Puritans: Jansenists and Rigorists in France’, in D. Pennington and K. Thomas, eds., Puritans and Revolutionaries (Oxford, 1978), pp. 345–7; Peronnet, Evèques, pp. 44–56.

⁶⁵ Ortiz, A. D., The Golden Age of Spain 1516–1659 tr. J. Casey (London, 1971), pp. 123–4; Kagan, ‘Universities’, pp. 49–50, 54, 56–7Google Scholar; Clark, G. N., The Seventeenth Century (Oxford, 1960), pp. 291–3; Verger, ‘Universités’, pp. 256–9, 259–66; Scotland, History of Scottish Education, 1, pp. 151-8; C. Bourgeaud, Histoire de l’Université de Genève: 1. l’Académie de Calvin, 1559–1798 (Geneva, 1900); P.-F. Geisendorf, L’Université de Genève (Geneva, 1959); Chadwick, Popes, pp. 114–15, 118–22, 129–31.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Ibid., pp. 124–33; Verger, ‘Universités’, p. 251; Bruford, Germany, p. 252; Pruett, Parish Clergy, p.51.

⁶⁷ e.g., R. Peters. ‘The Training of the “Unlearned” Clergy in England during the 1580s’, in Misc. Hist. Eccles., 3, pp. 184–97; T. Wood, ed., Five Pastorals (London, 1961); J. R. H. Moorman, ed., The Curate of Souls (London, 1958); C. Hill, ‘Puritans and “the Dark Corners of die Land”’, TRHS 5 ser., 13 (1963), pp. 77–102; and see below n. 111.

⁶⁸ Ortiz, Golden Age, pp. 201, 208, 213–14; Kamen, H., Spain in the Later Seventeenth Century 1665–1700 (London, 1980), p. 298; Schaer, Clergé Paroissial, pp. 138–41; Hoffman, Church and Community, pp. 77–9; Delumeau, Catholicisme, pp. 271–2, 278–80; and see Callahan and Higgs, Church and Society, pp. 30, 32, 43, 47, 56, 72, 74, 112, 133–5, 147–8, 154Google Scholar.

⁶⁹ e.g., Foster, Bishop and Presbytery, pp. 89–96; Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus, i, pp. 454–6; Tackett, Priest and Parish, pp. 81–2.

⁷⁰ Ferté, Vie Religieuse, p. 158.

⁷¹ Green, ‘Career Prospects’, pp. 109–10. For attempts to increase the study of theology, see O’Day, English Clergy, pp. 132–4, 139–40, and Dent, C. M., Protestant Reformers in Elizabethan Oxford (Oxford, 1983), pp. 165–66.Google Scholar

⁷² Brecht, ‘Herkunft’, p. 171; O’Day, English Clergy, pp. 7–66, 177; Pruett, Parish Clergy, pp. 52–7, 69–71, 96–7; Foster, Church before the Covenants, pp. 135–8; Schmitt, L’Organisation Ecclésiastique, p. 156; Tackett, Priest and Parish, pp. 98–102.

⁷³ Collinson, P., The Religion of Protestants: The Church in English Society 1559–1625(Oxford, 1982), pp. 118–19; Foster, Church before the Covenants, p. 138; Ferté, Vie Religieuse, p. 60; Playoust-Chaussis, Vie Religieuse, pp. 163–4.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ Foster, Church before the Covenants, pp. 136–7.

⁷⁵ See above n. 72, and J. McManners, French Ecclesiastical Society under the Ancien Régime (Man chester, 1960), p. 138.

⁷⁶ The amount of the bond could vary even within one Church and one diocese: Viala, “Suggestions’, pp. 1474–6; Y.-M Le Pennée, ‘Le Recrutement des Prêtres dans le Diocèse de Coutances au XVIIe Siècle’, Revue du Department de la Manche, 12 (1970), p. 195; Fracard, ‘Recrutement’, p. 246.

⁷⁷ See above nn. 20, 55, and Green, ‘Career Prospects’, pp. 71—88.

⁷⁸ Pérouas, ‘Le Nombre des Vocations Sacerdotales’, p. 38.

⁷⁹ Fracard, ‘Recrutement’, pp. 244, 256, 264; B. Vogler, ‘Recrutement et Carrière des Pasteurs Sttasbourgeois au XVI^e Siècle’, Revue d’Histoire et de Philosophie Religieuse, 48 (1968), pp. 159–60; Roberts, Gustavus Adolphus, 1, p. 391; O’Day, Parish Clergy, pp. 161–2; Green, “Career Prospects’, pp. 76–8; Pruett, Parish Clergy, pp. 35—7; Tackett, Priest and Parish, p. 55. Du Moulin is cited by Meylan, ‘Recrutement, pp. 148–9.

⁸⁰ McManners, French Ecclesiastical Society, pp. 138–9; Ferté, Vie Religieuse, pp. 19, 40–1; Playoust-Chaussis, Vie Religieuse, pp. 156–8; Chadwick, Popes, pp. 130, 154; Vogler, Clergé Protestant, pp. 79–84; O’Day, English Clergy, caps. 6–9; Foster, Church before the Covenants, pp. 138–9.

⁸¹ Brecht,’Herkunft’, pp. 174–5; Pruett, Parish Clergy, cap. 2; Hoffman, Church and Community, pp. 10–14.

⁸² Green, ‘Career Prospects’, pp. 89—92; but more local men were recruited in the remote diocese of Durham than in the county of Surrey: J. Freeman, ‘The Parish Ministry in the Diocese of Durham, c.1570-1640 (unpublished University of Durham Ph.D. thesis, 1979), cap. 1; R. A. Christophers, ‘Social and Educational Background of the Surrey Clergy, 1520–1620’(unpublished University of London PhD. thesis, 1975), cap. 2.

⁸³ For a disappointed place-seeker, see J. H. Pruett, ‘A Late Stuart Leicestershire Parson: the Reverend Humphrey Michel’, Leicestershire Archaeological and Historical Society Transactions, 54 (1978-9), pp. 26–38.

⁸⁴ Smout, Scottish People, pp. 70–3; Callahan and Higgs, Church and Society, pp. 37–8, 41–2, 54–55, 89–91, 123, 131.

⁸⁵ e.g., Vienna, ibid., pp. 90–1, and Madrid: Kamen, Spain, p. 299.

⁸⁶ See above notes 58, 82, 84;Tukker,’Recruitment’, pp. 201–3; Ferté, Vie Religieuse, pp. 42–3, 186–7; Chadwick, Popes, pp. 99–100; Callahan and Higgs, Church and Society, pp. 3–8.

⁸⁷ Delumeau, Catholicisme, p. 218–23 (citing the work of Pérouas in particular); Callahan and Higgs, Church and Society, p. 25; McLeod, Religion and People, pp. 2–3, 5–10; Coleman, B., The Church of England in the Mid-Nineteenth Century (London, 1980), pp. 8–25.Google Scholar

⁸⁸ For England, compare Heath, P., The English Parish Clergy on the Eve of the Reformation (London, 1969), pp. 10 Google Scholar, 106–7, 133–4. 152–3. and C. Haigh, ‘Anticlericalism and the English Reformation’, History, 68 (1983), pp. 391–407, with O’Day, English Clergy, caps. 14–15, and E.J. Evans, “Some Reasons for the Growth of English Rural Anri-Clericalism’, P&P 66 (1975), pp. 84–109. On Germany, see Scribner, R. W., Popular Culture and Popular Movements in Reformation Germany (London, 1987), cap. 11.Google Scholar

⁸⁹ Larner, C., Witchcraft and Religion: The Politics of Popular Belief (Oxford, 1984), cap. 2 (‘Pre-Industrial Europe: The Age of Faith’); J. A Sharpe, Early Modem England: A Social History 1550–1760 (London, 1987), pp. 44–5; Kamen, Spain, pp. 297–300; Callahan and Higgs, Church and Society, pp. 7–8 and cap. 10.Google Scholar

⁹⁰ Ingram, M. J., Church Courts, Sex and Marriage in England, 1570–1640 (Cambridge, 1988), p. 123 and cap. 3; see also Spufford, Contrasting Communities, cap.13, and next note.Google Scholar

⁹¹ e.g., Tackett, Priest and Parish, cap. 7; D. Spaeth, ‘Parsons and Parishioners: Lay-Clerical Conflicts and Popular Piety in Wiltshire Villages, 1660–1740’ (unpublished Brown University Ph.D. diesis, 1985), passim. Of course, many other variables come into play when one tries to assess lay-clerical relations in a parish.

⁹² Binz, VieReligieuse, p. 444; Hoffman, Church and Community, p. 140 and caps. 4—5;Fulbrook, Piety and Politics, pp. 85–6; Callahan and Higgs, Church and Society, pp. 5–6, 15, 25, 50–1, 68–72; M. Spufford, Contrasting Communities: English Villagers in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Cambridge, 1974), pt. 3; Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic, passim; and G. Strauss, ‘Success and Failure in the German Reformation’, P & P 67 (1975), pp. 30–63.

⁹³ e.g., O’Day, English Clergy, cap. 12; Tackett, Priest and Parish, pp. 225–9; and see above nn. 39, 68, 79

⁹⁴ Roberts, ‘The Swedish Church’, pp. 164–5; Tackett, Priest and Parish caps. 9–10, and Religion, Revolution and Regional Culture in Eighteenth-Century France (Princeton, 1986), passim.

⁹⁵ For the complexity of ecclesiastical relations in France from 1650 to 1800, see Golden, R. M., The Godly Rebellion: Parisian Curés and the Religious Fronde, 1652–1662 (Chapel Hill, 1981)Google Scholar; Kreiser, B. R., Miracles, Convulsions and Ecclesiastical Politics in Early Eighteenth-Century Paris (Princeton, 1978)Google Scholar; McManners, French Ecclesiastical Society; and previous note.

⁹⁶ J. den Tex, Oldenbamevelt, 2 vols (Cambridge, 1973), 2, cap. 10; N. Tyacke, Anti-Calvinists: The Rise of English Arminianism c.1590-1640 (Oxford, 1987); A. Whiteman, ‘Church and State’, in F. L. Carsten, ed., New Cambridge Modem History: 5. 1648–88 (Cambridge, 1964), pp. 132–6; Elliott, J. H., The Revolt of the Catalans (Cambridge, 1963), pp. 34, 289–90, 422, 427, 444–5, 486–7; H. G. Koenigsberger, Estates and Revolutions (Ithaca, 1971), pp. 262, 271–2; Golden, Godly Rebellion, passim; Scotland: D. Stevenson, The Scottish Revolution 1631–44 (Newton Abbor, 1973) and Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Scotland 1644–1651 (London, 1977); F. D. Dow, Cromwellian Scotland 1651–1660 (Edinburgh, 1979).Google Scholar

⁹⁷ Den Tex, Oldenbamevelt, 2, cap. 12; H. R. Trevor-Roper, Catholics, Anglicans and Puritans: Seventeenth Century Essays (London, 1987), pp. 40–119; Briggs, ‘Catholic Puritans’, pp. 338–43; J. McManners, ‘Religion and the Relations of Church and State’, in Bromley, J. S., ed., New Cambridge Modern History: 6.1688-1725 (Cambridge, 1971), pp. 132–4.Google Scholar

⁹⁸ Bennett, G. V., The Tory Crisis in Church and State 1688–1730 (Oxford, 1975), pt 1; E. Préclin, Les Jansénistes du XVlIIe Siècle et la Constitution Civile du Clergé (Paris, 1929), and sec works cited by Tackett in n. 94 above.Google Scholar

⁹⁹ G. S. Abernathy, ‘The English Presbyterians and the Stuart Restoration, 1648–1663’, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 55 (Philadelphia, 1965); J. Spurr, ‘Anglican Apologetic and the Restoration Church’ (unpublished Oxford University D.Phil, thesis, 1985); Buckroyd, J., Church and State in Scotland 1660–1681 (Edinburgh, 1980).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁰ The proportion of the French parish clergy who initially backed the Revolution and the Civil Constitution was just over a half (Tackett, Religion, Revolution and Regional Culture, p. 41), but in other countries, including England, the proportion of politically active clergy may have been much smaller.

¹⁰¹ For a recent survey see von Greyerz, K., ed., Religion and Society in Early Modern Europe 1500–1800 (London, 1984), pp. 1–14. Google Scholar

¹⁰² N. Z. Davis, ‘Some Tasks and Themes in the Study of Popular Religion’, in C. Trinkaus and H. A. Oberman, eds, The Pursuit of Holiness in Late Medieval and Renaissance Religion (Leiden, 1974), pp. 307–36, and ‘From “Popular Religion” to Religious Cultures’, in S. Ozment, ed., Reformation Europe: A Guide to Research (St Louis, 1982), pp. 321–41; M. Vcnard, ‘Popular Religion in the Eighteenth Century’, in Calahan and Higgs, Church and Society, pp. 138–42. Church music awaits a full comparative study.

¹⁰³ Ginzburg, C., The Cheese and the Worms: The Cosmos of a Sixteenth-Century Miller, Jr. J. and Tedeschi, A. (London, 1980)Google Scholar; Sabean, D., Power in the Blood: Popular Culture and Village Discourse in Early Modem Germany (Cambridge, 1984), cap. 2Google Scholar; Collinson, P., From Iconoclasmi to Iconophobia: the Cultural Impact of the Second English Reformation (Reading, 1986), p. 7.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁴ Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic, pp. 328–30, 438–9, 450–3, 523–4; 533–4, 559–80, 601–2, 707–9, 797; A Macfarlane, The Family Life of Ralph Josselin (Cambridge, 1970), pp. 189–96; M. MacDonald, Mystical Bedlam: Madness, Anxiety and Healing in Seventeenth-Century England (Cambridge, 1981), cap. 2 and passim; A Sinfield, Literature in Protestant England (London, 1983), caps. 3–61; I. M. Green,’The Persecution of “Scandalous” and “Malignant” Parish Clergy during die English Civil War’, EHR 94 (1979), pp. 521–2.

¹⁰⁵ Scribner, Popular Culture, cap. 2, and see the essays by Hórger and Burke in Greyerz, Religion and Society; W. A. Christian, Local Religion in Sixteenth-Century Spain (Princeton, 1981); Tackett, Priest and Parish, pp. 208–15; Briggs,’Catholic Puritans’, pp. 350–4.

¹⁰⁶ On the survival of older attitudes and customs in England, sec Gillis, J. R., For Better, For Worse: British Marriages 1600 to the Present (Oxford, 1985), pt. 1; Spaeth, ‘Parsons and Parishioners’, caps. 3–4; B. Bushaway, By Rile: Custom, Ceremony and Community in England 1700–1800 (London, 1982); J. Obelkevich, Religion and Rural Society: South Lindsey 1825–1875; (Oxford, 1975), cap. 6.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁷ D. Julia, ‘Le Clergé Paroissial du Diocèse de Reims à la fin du XVIIIe Siècle’, [pt. 1], Etudes Ardennaises, 49 (1967), pp. 26–8.

¹⁰⁸ Ibid., [pt. 2], 5 5 (1968), pp. 52–4; Green, ‘Emergence of the English Catechism’, pp. 413–14; Kamen, Spain, pp. 299–300.

¹⁰⁹ Davis, ‘From “Popular Religion”’, pp. 327, 330–1; and seem Aston, M., Lollards and Reformers: Images and Literacy in Lale Medieval Religion (London, 1984).Google Scholar

¹¹⁰ Christian, Local Religion, p. 20; and cf. Sabean, Power in the Blood, p. 199.

¹¹¹ Hoffman, Church and Community, pp. 50–2, 99–103, 109–10; Schaer, Clergé Paroissial, pp. 158–9, 165; Playoust-Chaussis, ‘Vie Religieuse’, pp. 167–8; Pérouas, La Rochelle, pp. 249–56; Broutin, Réforme Pastorale, pt. 3; Hufton, Bayeux, p. 35; Pruett, Parish Clergy, p. 46; Moorman, Curate of Souls, caps. 1, 3, 5; and see above, n. 68.

¹¹² Green, I. M., The Re-establishment of the Church of England 1660–1663 (Oxford, 1978), pp. 170– 7 Google Scholar; Julia, ‘Clergé Paroissial du Diocèse de Reims’ (pt. 2], pp. 54—7.

¹¹³ Much of this paragraph is based on material that will be discussed in my Religious Instruction in England c.1540-1740 (forthcoming).

¹¹⁴ See above n. 14; also G. Strauss, Luther’s House of Learning: Indoctrination of the Young in the German Reformation (London, 1978), and J. R. Armogathc, ‘Catéchisme et Enseignement Populaire en France’, Actes du Colloque d’Aix 1696 (Paris, 1973).

¹¹⁵ These will be listed in Appendix 1 of my Religious Instruction.

¹¹⁶ Green, ‘Emergence of the English Catechism’, pp. 401–25; B. Plongeron, La Vie Quotidienne du Clergé Français au XVIIIe Siècle (Paris, 1974), pp. 235–9.

¹¹⁷ The sample will form Appendix 2 of Religious Instruction; sec also Spufford, M., Small Books and Pleasant Histories (London, 1981)Google Scholar, cap. 8, and Charrier, R., The Cultural Uses of Print in Early Modem France (Princeton, 1987), caps. 2, 5.Google Scholar

¹¹⁸ Stranks, C.J., Anglican Devotion: Studies in the Spiritual Life of the Church of England (London, 1961), pp. 35–95. For some preliminary remarks about size and difficulty of books, see I. M. Green, ‘Bunyan in Context: the Changing Face of Protestantism in Seventeenth-Century England’ (forthcoming).Google Scholar

¹¹⁹ Ortiz, Golden Age, pp. 213–14;J.-J. von Allmen, L’Eglise et ses Fonctions d’après Jean-Frédéric Osterwaid (Neuchatel, 1947), pp. 78–9; Weir, ‘Pastoral Care’, p. 80; Ferté, ‘Vie Religieuse’, p. 189; Schaer, Clergé Paroissial, p. 165; and see previous notes.

¹²⁰ Green, ‘Emergence of the English Catechism’, pp. 408–10.

¹²¹ See, for instance, the many efforts by English and Scottish Presbyterian clergy to make the Westminster Shorter Catechism easier for their catechumens to grasp; also Gawthrop and Strauss, ‘Protestantism and Literacy’;Johansson, ‘Literacy in Sweden’; and Charrier, L’Education en France, pp. 6–5.

¹²² The filter may have worked in the other direction too, in that some of the clergy may have concealed evidence of unconventional local ideas or practices from the authorities.

¹²³ The impression is based on the higher proportion of graduates in the parish clergy, and the greater availability of information through booksellers, lending libraries, newspapers and societies.

¹²⁴ Green, ‘Emergence of the English Catechism’, p. 404 and n. 32. See also Porter, H. C., Reformation and Reaction in Tudor Cambridge (Cambridge, 1958), pp. 398–403.Google Scholar

¹²⁵ The samples upon which I base these remarks stop in the 1730s: see my Religious Instruction.

¹²⁶ Briggs, ‘Catholic Puritans’, p. 351.

¹²⁷ See J. K. Cameron, ‘The Church of Scotland in the Age of Reason’, Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 58 (1967), pp. 1941–7; and the debate among English and Scottish Presbyterians in the late 1730s provoked by James Strong’s revision of the Westminster Shorter Catechism.

¹²⁸ Baxter, Reformed Pastor, cap. 2, sections 3: 4 and 3: 1; for du Moulin see above p. 24.