1. In the course of this essay, the term Populism capitalized will be used to refer to the agrarian uprising of the 1880s and 1890s while populism in lowercase will be used to designate elements of political thought and rhetoric in other periods of American history as well. The same difference applies to the terms Populist and populist.

2. Among the more important studies of Populism are those by Goodwyn, Lawrence, Democratic Promise: The Populist Moment in America (New York, 1976)Google Scholar: Pollack, Normal, The Just Polity: Populism, Law, and Human Welfare (Urbana, Ill., 1987)Google Scholar; Hahn, Steven, The Roots of Southern Populism: Yeoman Farmers and the Transformation of the Georgia Upcountry, 1850–1890 (New York, 1983)Google Scholar; Clanton, O. Gene, Kansas Populism: Ideas and Men (Lawrence, Kans., 1969)Google Scholar; Cherny, Robert W., Populism, Progressivism, and the Transformation of Nebraska Politics, 1885–1915 (Lincoln, Nebr., 1981)Google Scholar; Argersinger, Peter H., Populism and Politics: William Alfred Peffer and the People's Party (Lexington, Ky., 1974)Google Scholar: Hofstadter, Richard, The Age of Reform: From Bryan to F.D.R. (New York, 1955)Google Scholar; and Hicks, John D., The Populist Revolt: A History of the Farmers' Alliance and the People's Party (Minneapolis, Minn., 1931)Google Scholar.

3. Turner, James, “Understanding the Populists,” Journal of American History 67, no. 2 (09 1980), 372CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For an overview of research on Populism, see also Holmes, William F., “Populism; In Search of Context,” Agricultural History 64, no. 4 (10 1990), 26–58Google Scholar; Launius, Roger D., “The Nature of the Populists: An Historiographical Essay,” Southern Studies 22, no. 4 (Winter 1983), 366–85Google Scholar; and Ridge, Martin, “Populism Redux: John D. Hicks and the Populist Revolt,” Reviews in American History 13, no. 1 (03 1985), 142–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

4. One exception is the excellent article by Huston, James L., “The American Revolution aries, the Political Economy of Aristocracy, and the American Concept of the Distribution of Wealth, 1765–1900,” American Historical Review 98, no. 4 (10 1993), 1079–105CrossRefGoogle Scholar. A number of authors have highlighted the connection between the Antifederalists, the radical Jeffersonian opposition, and Jacksonianism, but few have followed the development of antimonopoly in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

5. The most influential historical exponent of this idea has been Alfred D. Chandler; see The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977), and Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism (Cambridge, Mass., 1990). See also Porter, Glenn, The Rise of Big Business, 1860–1910 (Arlington Heights, Ill., 1973)Google Scholar; Galambos, Louis, “The Emerging Organizational Synthesis in American History,” in Men and Organizations: The American Economy in the Twentieth Century, ed. Perkins, Edwin J. (New York, 1977), 3–15Google Scholar, and “Technology, Political Economy, and Professionalization: Central Themes of the Organizational Synthesis,” Business History Review 57 no. 4 (Winter 1983), 471–93.

6. Parsons, Stanley B., Parsons, Karen T., Killilae, Walter, and Borgers, Beverly, “The Role of Cooperatives in the Development of the Movement Culture of Populism,” Journal of American History 69, no. 4 (03 1983), 866–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7. There have some attempts to arrive at cross-national definitions of populism, a term that has been applied to a great number of movements in a variety of countries. But these efforts offer little insight into the role of populism in American history. See Wiles, Peter, “A Syndrome, Not a Doctrine: Some Elementary Theses on Populism,” in Populism: Its Meaning and National Characteristics, ed. Ionescu, G. and Gellner, E. (London, 1969), 166–79Google Scholar; Richard Hofstadter, “North America,” in ibid., 9–27; Canovan, Margaret, Populism (New York, 1981)Google Scholar, and “Two Strategies for the Study of Populism,” Political Studies 30, no. 4 (Fall 1982), 544–52. In a similar fashion, Kazin, Michael, in his book The Populist Persuasion: An American History (New York, 1995)Google Scholar, adopts such a vague definition of populism, as a political language that invokes a broadly conceived entity called the people, and includes such a variety of movements and ideas in his analysis that the very term populism becomes bereft of all historical distinctiveness. Further more, Kazin largely ignores the economic theory that, as outlined in this article, formed the core of nineteenth-century populism.

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