Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2plfb Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T13:57:01.139Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Unpacking Representation in State Immigration Policy: Latino Composition, White Racial Threat, and Legislator Partisanship

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2021

James M. Avery  and
Jeffrey A. Fine
James M. Avery*
Affiliation:
Stockton University, Galloway, NJ, USA
Jeffrey A. Fine
Affiliation:
Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
*
James M. Avery, Stockton University, 101 Vera King Farris Drive, Galloway, NJ 08205, USA. Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Most research studying minority representation concludes that minorities enjoy better representation when they constitute a larger share of a constituency, but only through the partisanship and race/ethnicity of the representative. Other research finds that minorities receive worse representation when they constitute a larger share of a constituency. We argue that minority composition will have an independent effect on representation, but that this effect will differ depending on the representative's partisanship. We apply our theory to Latino composition and state legislative voting on immigration policy and find that Latino composition has no effect on voting among Democratic legislators, who are less likely to vote in a restrictive direction on immigration than Republicans regardless of the Latino composition in their district. However, Republicans are more likely to vote to restrict immigration as Latinos comprise a larger share of their district. Our findings suggest that scholars should consider the moderating effect of legislator partisanship when examining minority composition and representation.

Keywords

minority representationminority compositionracial threatLatino politicsimmigration policypartisanship
Type
Research Article
Information
State Politics & Policy Quarterly , Volume 20 , Issue 1 , March 2020 , pp. 23 - 53
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s) 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abrajano, Marisa, and Hajnal, Zoltan L.. 2015. White Backlash: Immigration, Race, and American Politics. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Alvarez, R. Michael, and Bedolla, Lisa Garcia. 2003. “The Foundations of Latino Voter Partisanship: Evidence from the 2000 Election.” Journal of Politics 65 (1): 31–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arceneaux, Kevin. 2001. “The ‘Gender Gap’ in State Legislative Representation: New Data to Tackle an Old Question.” Political Research Quarterly 54 (1): 143–160.Google Scholar
Arnold, R. Douglas. 1992. The Logic of Congressional Action. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Avery, James M., and Fine, Jeffrey A.. 2012. “Racial Composition, White Racial Attitudes, and Black Representation: Testing the Racial Threat Hypothesis in the United States Senate.” Political Behavior 34 (3): 391–410.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Avery, James M., Fine, Jeffrey A., and Marquez, Timothy. 2017. “Racial Threat and the Influence of Latino Turnout on State Immigration Policy.” Social Science Quarterly 98 (2): 750–765.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banducci, Susan A., Donovan, Todd, and Karp, Jeffrey A.. 2004. “Minority Representation, Empowerment, and Participation.” Journal of Politics 66 (2): 534–556.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barreto, Matt A., and Segura, Gary M.. 2014. Latino America: How America's Most Dynamic Population Is Poised to Transform the Politics of the Nation. New York: PublicAffairs.Google Scholar
Barreto, Matt A., Segura, Gary M., and Woods, Nathan D.. 2004. “The Mobilizing Effect of Majority-Minority Districts on Latino Turnout.” American Political Science Review 98 (1): 65–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartels, Larry M. 1991. “Constituency Opinion and Congressional Policy Making: The Reagan Defense Buildup.” American Political Science Review 84 (2): 457–474.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Black, Merle. 1978. “Racial Composition of Congressional Districts and Support for Federal Voting Rights in the American South.” Social Science Quarterly 59 (3): 435–450.Google Scholar
Blalock, Hubert M. 1967. Toward a Theory of Minority-Group Relations. New York: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Boushey, Graeme, and Luedtke, Adam. 2011. “Immigrants across the U.S. Federal Laboratory: Explaining State-Level Innovation in Immigration Policy.” State Politics and Policy Quarterly 11 (4): 390–414.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brader, Ted, Valentino, Nicholas A., and Suhay, Elizabeth. 2008. “What Triggers Public Opposition to Immigration? Anxiety, Group Cues, and Immigration Threat.” American Journal of Political Science 52 (4): 959–978.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brady, David W., Han, Hahrie, and Pope, Jeremy C.. 2007. “Primary Elections and Candidate Ideology: Out of Stop with the Primary Electorate?” Legislative Studies Quarterly 32 (1): 79–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Branton, Regina, Cassese, Erin C., Jones, Bradford S., and Westerland, Chad. 2011. “All Along the Watchtower: Acculturation Fear, Anti-Latino Affect, and Immigration.” Journal of Politics 73 (3): 664–679.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Irene, Reingold, Beth, and Kronberg, Anne. 2018. “Race Relations, Black Elites, and Immigration Politics: Conflict, Commonalities, and Context.” Social Forces 96 (4): 1691–1720.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bullock, Charles S. III. 1981. “Congressional Voting and the Mobilization of a Black Electorate in the South.” Journal of Politics 43 (3): 662–682.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, Daniel, and Nickerson, David W.. 2011. “Can Learning Constituency Opinion Affect How Legislators Vote? Results from a Field Experiment.” Quarterly Journal of Political Science 6 (1): 55–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butz, Adam M., and Kehrberg, Jason E.. 2015. “Social Distrust and Immigrant Access to Welfare Programs in the American States.” Politics & Policy 43 (2): 256–286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butz, Adam M., and Kehrberg, Jason E.. 2016. “Estimating Anti-immigrant Sentiment for the American States Using Multi-level Modeling and Post-stratification, 2004-2008.” Research & Politics 3 (2): 1–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Canes-Wrone, Brandice, Brady, David W., and Cogan, John F.. 2002. “Out of Step, Out of Office: Electoral Accountability and House Members' Voting.” American Political Science Review 96 (1): 127–140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Canes-Wrone, Brandice, Minozzi, William, and Reveley, Jessica Bonney. 2011. “Issue Accountability and the Mass Public.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 36 (1): 5–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Canon, David T. 1999. Race, Redistricting, and Representation: The Unintended Consequences of Black Majority Districts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Casellas, Jason P. 2007. “Latino Representation in Congress: To What Extent Are Latinos Substantively Represented?” In Latino Politics: Identity, Mobilization, and Representation, eds. Espino, Rodolfo, Leal, David L., and Meier, Kenneth J.. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 219–231.Google Scholar
Casellas, Jason P. 2011. Latino Representation in State Houses and Congress. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Caughey, Devin, and Warshaw, Christopher. 2018. “Policy Preferences and Policy Change: Dynamic Responsiveness in the American States, 1936–2014.” American Political Science Review 112 (2): 249–266.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chavez, Jorge M., and Provine, Doris Marie. 2009. “Race and the Response of State Legislatures to Unauthorized Immigrants.” The Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Science 623 (1): 78–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chavez, Leo R. 2013. The Latino Threat: Constructing Immigrants, Citizens, and the Nation. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Citrin, Jack, Green, Donald P., Muste, Christopher, and Wong, Cara. 1997. “Public Opinion toward Immigration Reform: The Role of Economic Motivations.” Journal of Politics 59 (3): 858–881.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Creek, Heather M., and Yoder, Stephen. 2012. “With a Little Help from Our Feds: Understanding State Immigration Enforcement Policy Adoption in American Federalism.” Policy Studies Journal 40 (4): 674–697.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Enos, Ryan D. 2016. “What the Demolition of Public Housing Teaches Us about the Impact of Racial Threat on Political Behavior.” American Journal of Political Science 60 (1): 123–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erikson, Robert S., MacKuen, Michael B., and Stimson, James A.. 2002. The Macro Polity. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Fenno, Richard. 1978. Home Style: House Members in Their Districts. Boston: Little, Brown.Google Scholar
Filindra, Alexandra. 2019. “Is ‘Threat’ in the Eye of the Researcher? Theory and Measurement in the Study of State-Level Immigration Policymaking.” Policy Studies Journal 47:517–543.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fine, Jeffrey A., and Avery, James M.. 2014. “Senate Responsiveness to Minority Constituencies: Latino Electoral Strength and Representation.” Social Science Quarterly 95 (4): 1172–1188.Google Scholar
Frymer, Paul. 1999. Uneasy Alliances: Race and Party Competition in America. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Gallup. n.d. “Topics A to Z: Immigration.”.Google Scholar
Garcia, F. Chris, and de la Garza, Rodolfo. 1977. The Chicano Political Experience. North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press.Google Scholar
Gilens, Martin. 1996. “‘Race Coding’ and White Opposition to Welfare.” American Political Science Review 90 (3): 593–604.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilens, Martin. 1999. Why Americans Hate Welfare: Race, Media, and the Politics of Antipoverty Policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giles, Michael W., and Buckner, Melanie A.. 1996. “David Duke and Black Threat: An Old Hypothesis Revisited.” Journal of Politics 55 (3): 702–713.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giles, Michael W., and Hertz, Kaenan. 1994. “Racial Threat and Partisan Identification.” American Political Science Review 88 (2): 317–326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Griffin, John D., and Newman, Brian. 2007. “The Unequal Representation of Latinos and Whites.” Journal of Politics 69 (4): 1032–1046.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Griffin, John D., and Newman, Brian. 2008. Minority Report: Evaluating Political Equality in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grose, Christian R. 2005. “Disentangling Constituency and Legislator Effects in Legislative Representation: Black Legislators or Black Districts?” Social Science Quarterly 86 (2): 427–443.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ha, Shang E. 2010. “The Consequences of Multiracial Contexts on Public Attitudes toward Immigration.” Political Research Quarterly 63 (1): 29–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hainmueller, Jens, and Hopkins, Daniel J.. 2014. “Public Attitudes toward Immigration.” Annual Review of Political Science 17:225–249.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hajnal, Zoltan, and Rivera, Michael U.. 2014. “Immigration, Latinos, and White Partisan Politics: The New Democratic Defection.” American Journal of Political Science 58 (4): 773–789.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartman, Todd K., Newman, Benjamin J., and Bell, C. Scott. 2014. “Decoding Prejudice Toward Hispanics: Group Cues and Public Reactions to Threatening Immigrant Behavior.” Political Behavior 36 (1): 143–163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hero, Rodney E. 1992. Latinos and the U.S. Political System: Two Tiered Pluralism. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Hero, Rodney E., and Tolbert, Caroline J.. 1995. “Latinos and Substantive Representation in the U.S. House of Representatives: Direct, Indirect, or Nonexistent?” American Journal of Political Science 39 (3): 640–652.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hetherington, Marc J., and Rudolph, Thomas J.. 2015. Why Washington Won't Work. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huckfeldt, Robert, and Kohfeld, Carol Weitzel. 1989. Race and the Decline of Class in American Politics. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Iyengar, Shanto, Sood, Gaurav, and Lelkes, Yphtach. 2012. “Affect, Not Ideology: A Social Identity Perspective on Polarization.” Public Opinion Quarterly 76 (3): 405–431.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, Bradley. 2016. “Americans' View of Immigrants Marked by Widening Partisan, Generational Divides.” Pew Research Center..Google Scholar
Juenke, Eric Gonzalez, and Preuhs, Robert R.. 2012. “Irreplaceable Legislators? Rethinking Minority Representatives in the New Century.” American Journal of Political Science 56 (3): 705–715.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kassow, Benjamin J., and Finocchiaro, Charles J.. 2011. “Responsiveness and Electoral Accountability in the U.S. Senate.” American Politics Research 39 (6): 1019–1044.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kerr, Brinck, and Miller, Will. 1997. “Latino Representation, It's Direct and Indirect.” American Journal of Political Science 41 (3): 1066–1071.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Key, V. O. Jr. 1949. Southern Politics in State and Nation. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press.Google Scholar
Kinder, Donald R., and Winter, Nicholas. 2001. “Exploring the Racial Divide: Blacks, Whites, and Opinion on National Policy.” American Journal of Political Science 45 (2): 439–456.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kousser, Thad, Lewis, Jeffrey B., and Masket, Seth E.. 2007. “Ideological Adaptation? The Survival Instinct of Threatened Legislators.” Journal of Politics 69 (3): 828–843.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuklinski, James H., Cobb, Michael D., and Gilens, Martin. 1997. “Racial Attitudes in the ‘New South.‘” Journal of Politics 59 (2): 323–349.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Decisions, Latino. 2010. “Latino Voters Strongly Reject Arizona Immigration Law 1070.” May 26..Google Scholar
Leal, David L. 2007. “Latino Public Opinion: Does It Exist?” In Latino Politics: Identity, Mobilization, and Representation, eds. Espino, Rodolfo, Leal, David L., and Meier, Kenneth J.. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 27–43.Google Scholar
Lublin, David. 1997. The Paradox of Representation: Racial Gerrymandering and Minority Interests in Congress. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Mansbridge, Jane. 1999. “Should Blacks Represent Blacks and Women Represent Women? A Contingent ‘Yes.‘” The Journal of Politics 61 (3): 628–657.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mansbridge, Jane. 2003. “Rethinking Representation.” American Political Science Review 97 (4): 515–528.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mansbridge, Jane. 2009. “A ‘Selection Model’ of Political Representation.” The Journal of Political Philosophy 17 (4): 369–398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marquez, Timothy, and Schraufnagel, Scot. 2013. “Hispanic Population Growth and State Immigration Policy: An Analysis of Restriction (2008-12).” Publius: The Journal of Federalism 43 (3): 347–367.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masuoka, Natalie, and Junn, Jane. 2013. The Politics of Belonging: Race, Public Opinion, and Immigration. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matos, Yalidy. 2017. “Geographies of Exclusion: The Importance of Racial Legacies in Examining State-Level Immigration Laws.” American Behavioral Scientists 61:808–831. doi:10.1177/0002764217720480.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayhew, David R. 1974. Congress: The Electoral Connection. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
McCrone, Donald J., and Kuklinski, James H.. 1979. “The Delegate Theory of Representation.” American Journal of Political Science 23 (2): 278–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, Warren E., and Stokes, Donald E.. 1963. “Constituency Influence in Congress.” American Political Science Review 57 (1): 45–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Monogan, James E. III. 2013. “The Politics of Immigrant Policy in the 50 US States, 20052011.” Journal of Public Policy 33 (1): 35–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Monogan, James E. III, and Doctor, Austin C.. 2017. “Immigration Politics and Partisan Realignment: California, Texas, and the 1994 Election.” State Politics & Policy Quarterly 17 (1): 3–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Newman, Benjamin J. 2013. “Acculturating Context and Anglo Opposition to Immigration in the United States.” American Journal of Political Science 57 (2): 374–390.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Newman, Benjamin J., Hartman, Todd K., and Taber, Charles S.. 2012. “Foreign Language Exposure, Cultural Threat, and Opposition to Immigration.” Political Psychology 33 (5): 635–657.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nicholas, Pyeatt. 2013. “Strategic Entry and Congressional Behavior: Primary Challenges to House Incumbents.” Journal of Political Science 41:95–118.Google Scholar
Nicholson, Stephen P., and Segura, Gary M.. 2005. “Issue Agendas and the Politics of Latino Partisan Identification.” In Diversity in Democracy: Minority Representation in the United States, eds. Segura, Gary M., and Bowler, Shaun. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 51–71.Google Scholar
Page, Benjamin I., and Shapiro, Robert Y.. 1983. “Effects of Public Opinion on Policy.” American Political Science Review 77 (1): 175–190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pitkin, Hanna Fenichel. 1967. The Concept of Representation. Berkeley: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Preuhs, Robert R. 2005. “Descriptive Representation, Legislative Leadership, and Direct Democracy: Latino Influence on English Only Laws in the States, 1984–2002.” State Politics & Policy Quarterly 5 (3): 203–224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Preuhs, Robert R. 2007. “Descriptive Representation as a Mechanism to Mitigate Policy Backlash: Latino Incorporation and Welfare Policy in the American States.” Political Research Quarterly 60 (2): 277–292.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Preuhs, Robert R., and Juenke, Eric Gonzalez. 2011. “Latino U.S. State Legislators in the 1990s: Majority-Minority Districts, Minority Incorporation, and Institutional Position.” State Politics & Policy Quarterly 11 (1): 48–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rehfeld, Andrew. 2009. “Representation Rethought: On Trustees, Delegates, and Gyroscopes in the Study of Political Representation and Democracy.” American Political Science Review 103 (2): 214–230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reich, Gary. 2017. “Immigrant Legislation, across and Within the United States.” Research & Politics 4 (4): 1–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rivera, Michael. 2014. “Immigration, Public Opinion, and State Policy (Un)responsiveness: A Case for Analyzing Policies that Expand the Rights of Immigrants.” Presented at the Annual State Politics and Policy Conference, Bloomington, May.Google Scholar
Rocha, Rene R., and Espino, Rodolfo. 2009. “Racial Threat, Residential Segregation, and the Policy Attitudes of Anglos.” Political Research Quarterly 62 (2): 415–426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rocha, Rene R., Tolbert, Caroline J., Bowen, Daniel C., and Clark, Christopher J.. 2010. “Race and Turnout: Does Descriptive Representation in State Legislatures Increase Minority Voting?” Political Research Quarterly 63 (4): 890–907.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rouse, Stella M. 2013. Latinos in the Legislative Process: Interests and Influence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schildkraut, Deborah J. 2005. Press One for English: Language Policy, Public Opinion, and American Identity. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Schildkraut, Deborah J. 2011. Americanism in the Twenty-First Century: Public Opinion in the Age of Immigration. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Shor, Boris, and McCarty, Nolan. 2011. “The Ideological Mapping of American Legislatures.” American Political Science Review 105 (3): 530–551.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steenbergen, Marco R., and Jones, Bradford S.. 2002. “Modeling Multilevel Data Structures.” American Journal of Political Science 46 (1): 218–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stewart, Eric A., Martinez, Ramiro Jr., Baumer, Eric P., and Gertz, Marc. 2015. “The Social Context of Latino Threat and Putative Latino Sentiment.” Social Problems 62 (1): 68–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stonecash, Jeffrey M., Brewer, Mark D., and Mariani, Mack D.. 2003. Diverging Parties: Social Change, Realignment, and Party Polarization. Boulder: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Swain, Carol M. 1993. Black Faces, Black Interests: The Representation of African Americans in Congress. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Tate, Katherine. 2003. Black Faces in the Mirror: African Americans and Their Representatives in the U.S. Congress. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Tausanovitch, Chris, and Warshaw, Christopher. 2013. “Measuring Constituent Policy Preferences in Congress, State Legislatures, and Cities.” Journal of Politics 75 (2): 330–342.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, Maryless C. 1998. “How White Attitudes Vary with the Racial Composition of Local Populations: Numbers Count.” American Sociological Review 63 (4): 512–535.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tesler, Michael. 2016. Post-racial or Most-racial? Race and Politics in the Obama Era. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tolbert, Caroline J., and Hero, Rodney E.. 1996. “Race/Ethnicity and Direct Democracy: An Analysis of California's Illegal Immigration Initiative.” Journal of Politics 58 (3): 806–818.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valentino, Nicholas A., Brader, Ted, and Jardina, Ashley E.. 2013. “Immigration Opposition among U.S. Whites: General Ethnocentrism or Media Priming of Attitudes about Latinos?” Political Psychology 34 (2): 149–166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wallace, Sophia J. 2014. “Papers Please: State-Level Anti-immigrant Legislation in the Wake of Arizona's SB 1070.” Political Science Quarterly 129 (2): 261–291.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitby, Kenny J. 1997. The Color of Representation: Congressional Behavior and Black Interests. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitby, Kenny J., and Krause, George A.. 2001. “Race, Issue Heterogeneity and Public Policy: The Republican Revolution in the 104th US Congress and the Representation of African-American Policy Interests.” British Journal of Political Science 31 (3): 555–572.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, Walter Clark. 2010. “Descriptive Representation and Latino Interest Bill Sponsorship in Congress.” Social Studies Quarterly 91 (4): 1043–1062.Google Scholar
Wlezien, Christopher. 2004. “Patterns of Representation: Dynamics of Public Preferences and Policy.” Journal of Politics 66 (1): 1–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wong, Cara J. 2010. Boundaries of Obligation in American Politics: Geographic, National, and Racial Communities. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wong, Tom K. 2017. The Politics of Immigration: Partisanship, Demographic Change, and American National Identity. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ybarra, Vickie D., Sanchez, Lisa M., and Sanchez, Gabriel. 2016. “Anti-immigrant Anxieties in State Policy: The Great Recession and Punitive Immigration Policy in the American States, 2005–2012.” State Politics & Policy Quarterly 16 (3): 313–339.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zingher, Joshua N. 2014. “The Ideological and Electoral Determinants of Laws Targeting Undocumented Migrants in the U.S. States.” State Politics & Policy Quarterly 14 (1): 90–117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar