Introduction
One of the most researched constructs in middle and late adulthood is the so-called perceptions of aging. This construct can be understood as “beliefs about older people in general” (Levy, Reference Levy2009, p. 332). Perceptions of aging are internalized throughout the life cycle, operate unconsciously, become self-relevant, and manifest through multiple pathways. This whole process is developmentally influenced by society, which inculcates these beliefs since childhood (Levy, Reference Levy2003, Reference Levy2009). Rothermund et al. (Reference Rothermund, de Paula Couto, Fung, Graf, Hess, Liou and Nikitin2021) provide additional insights into how perceptions of aging operate in the lives of older adults. They establish that, when negative changes occur in old age (due to critical events such as, for example, retirement), if negative perceptions of aging are present, changes associated with the negative events are more likely to be attributed to age, producing negative consequences in people’s life satisfaction. Finally, according to the Stereotype-Embodiment Theory (Levy, Reference Levy2003, Reference Levy2009), upon reaching old age, these beliefs about older people are directed towards oneself, giving rise to what are known as self-perceptions of aging.
Several studies have related self-perceptions of aging to the aging process and older adults’ health. For example, classic data on this issue show how older adults with more positive self-perceptions of aging had longer life expectancy (Levy, Slade, Kunkel et al., Reference Levy, Slade, Kunkel and Kasl2002). Levy, Slade and Kasl (Reference Levy, Slade and Kasl2002) conducted a longitudinal study and found that those participants with more positive self-perceptions of aging reported better functional health 18 years later. Subsequent findings indicate that having more positive self-perceptions of aging is related to better physical functioning (Bryant et al., Reference Bryant, Bei, Gilson, Komiti, Jackson and Judd2012) and negative self-perceptions with worse self-reported health status (Kornadt et al., Reference Kornadt, Albert, Hoffmann, Murdock and Nell2021; Sánchez Palacios et al., Reference Sánchez Palacios, Trianes Torres and Blanca Mena2009; Vauclair et al., Reference Vauclair, Marques, Lima, Abrams, Swift and Bratt2015), lower physical activity (Sánchez Palacios et al., Reference Sánchez Palacios, Trianes Torres and Blanca Mena2009) and cognitive impairment (Laidlaw & Kishita, Reference Laidlaw and Kishita2015). Wurm and Schäfer (Reference Wurm and Schäfer2022) recently provided data in favor of the impact that negative self-perceptions of aging have on mortality.
In addition to having an impact on physical health in old age, self-perceptions of aging play an important role in people’s mental health. For example, Bryant et al. (Reference Bryant, Bei, Gilson, Komiti, Jackson and Judd2012) indicate that more positive self-perceptions of aging are associated with higher levels of life satisfaction and lower levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms. Levy et al. (Reference Levy, Pilver and Pietrzak2014, Reference Levy, Chung, Slade, Van Ness and Pietrzak2019) found that negative perceptions of aging were associated with greater psychopathological symptomatology such as suicidal ideation, anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress. Additional studies have found a significant association between negative self-perceptions of aging and a higher frequency of symptoms of psychological distress such as depression, anxiety, or loneliness, through the life cycle (Chang et al., Reference Chang, Kannoth, Levy, Wang, Lee and Levy2020; Fernandes-Pires et al., Reference Fernandes-Pires, del Sequeros Pedroso-Chaparro, Jiménez-Gonzalo, Márquez-González, Cabrera and Losada-Baltar2023; Losada-Baltar et al., Reference Losada-Baltar, Jiménez-Gonzalo, Gallego-Alberto, Pedroso-Chaparro, Fernandes-Pires and Márquez-González2021; Pedroso-Chaparro et al., Reference Pedroso-Chaparro, Márquez-González, Vara-García, Cabrera, Romero-Moreno, Barrera-Caballero and Losada2021, Reference Pedroso-Chaparro, Cabrera, Márquez-González, Vara-García, Fernandes-Pires, Gallego-Alberto and Losada-Baltar2022, Reference Pedroso-Chaparro, Antón-López, Cabrera, Márquez-González, Martínez-Huertas and Losada-Baltar2023a; Wurm & Schäfer, Reference Wurm and Schäfer2022). In the longitudinal study by Losada-Baltar et al. (Reference Losada-Baltar, Martínez-Huertas, Jiménez-Gonzalo, Pedroso-Chaparro, Gallego-Alberto, Fernandes-Pires and Márquez-González2022), more negative self-perceptions of aging were associated with a risk of higher levels of emotional distress later in life. Moreover, Kwak et al. (Reference Kwak, Ingersoll-Dayton and Burgard2014) found that older adults who received more care tended to view their aging more negatively, which, in turn, led to an increase in depressive symptoms two years later. Zhu et al. (Reference Zhu, Chen, Ding and Li2024), in their systematic review, showed the mental health benefits of intervening in older adults’ self-perceptions of aging.
The previous studies mentioned show the relationship between self-perceptions of aging and emotional distress; however, knowledge about the possible mechanisms that explain this relationship is scarce. This is important because, if the pathways through which self-perceptions of aging act are known, these variables can be considered in prevention and intervention programs aimed at improving adults’ mental health. Variables such as perceived control and activity level may play a role in this relationship. Some aspects of these variables are explored below.
Robinson and Lachman (Reference Robinson and Lachman2017, p. 436) define perceived control as “beliefs about the likelihood that one’s actions will produce desired outcomes”. Multiple studies have examined this construct in relation to chronological age and negative self-perceptions of aging. On the one hand, regarding chronological age, from a longitudinal perspective, perceived control varies throughout the life cycle, showing a decrease in late adulthood (Drewelies et al., Reference Drewelies, Wagner, Tesch-Römer, Heckhausen and Gerstorf2017; Infurna & Okun, Reference Infurna and Okun2015). In relation to negative self-perceptions of aging, several studies suggest that they are associated with lower levels of perceived control (Lee et al., Reference Lee, Lee and An2020; Pedroso-Chaparro et al., Reference Pedroso-Chaparro, Márquez-González, Vara-García, Cabrera, Romero-Moreno, Barrera-Caballero and Losada2021, Reference Pedroso-Chaparro, Cabrera, Márquez-González, Vara-García, Fernandes-Pires, Gallego-Alberto and Losada-Baltar2022). Using longitudinal data, Luo et al. (Reference Luo, Li and Chui2020) found that, although the relationship between self-perceptions of aging and perceived control is bidirectional, the impact of self-perceptions of aging on perceived control is greater than vice versa. Perceived control has also been related in the scientific literature to psychological well-being, including associations with life satisfaction and well-being, and depressive symptoms (Infurna & Okun, Reference Infurna and Okun2015; Kwak et al., Reference Kwak, Ingersoll-Dayton and Burgard2014; Lachman & Weaver, Reference Lachman and Weaver1998; Robinson & Lachman, Reference Robinson and Lachman2017). A possible explanation for the impact of perceived control on people’s physical and mental health is that higher levels of perceived control are associated with increased levels of activity (Rodin, Reference Rodin1986). In fact, activity is another key variable for understanding older adults’ mental health, and engaging in pleasant activities has also been addressed in the scientific literature in relation to self-perceptions of aging. Evidence has been found supporting the association between positive self-perceptions of aging and greater involvement in pleasurable activities (De Paula Couto et al., Reference De Paula Couto, Ekerdt, Fung, Hess and Rothermund2022; Hicks & Siedlecki, Reference Hicks and Siedlecki2017; Lee et al., Reference Lee, Lee and An2020; Robertson & Kenny, Reference Robertson and Kenny2016).
Research has shown an association between pleasant activities and physical and mental health in middle-aged and older adults. Specifically, this variable has been found to be related to physical (Chang et al., Reference Chang, Wray and Lin2014; Sala et al., Reference Sala, Jopp, Gobet, Ogawa, Ishioka, Masui, Inagaki, Nakagawa, Yasumoto, Ishizaki, Arai, Ikebe, Kamide and Gondo2019), cognitive (Chen et al., Reference Chen, Holahan, Holahan and Li2018; Sala et al., Reference Sala, Jopp, Gobet, Ogawa, Ishioka, Masui, Inagaki, Nakagawa, Yasumoto, Ishizaki, Arai, Ikebe, Kamide and Gondo2019) and mental health (Kim et al., Reference Kim, Kim and Han2020; Yoshida et al., Reference Yoshida, Iwasa, Ishioka and Suzukamo2021). In particular, it has been related to psychological dimensions such as subjective well-being (Kuykendall et al., Reference Kuykendall, Tay and Ng2015), life satisfaction (Col et al., Reference Col, Kose and Basaran2022; Sala et al., Reference Sala, Jopp, Gobet, Ogawa, Ishioka, Masui, Inagaki, Nakagawa, Yasumoto, Ishizaki, Arai, Ikebe, Kamide and Gondo2019), positive affect (Sala et al., Reference Sala, Jopp, Gobet, Ogawa, Ishioka, Masui, Inagaki, Nakagawa, Yasumoto, Ishizaki, Arai, Ikebe, Kamide and Gondo2019), depressive symptoms (Col et al., Reference Col, Kose and Basaran2022; Dupuis & Smale, Reference Dupuis and Smale1995) and stress (Col et al., Reference Col, Kose and Basaran2022).
Even though there are studies that have analyzed the indirect effect of perceived control in the association between self-perceptions of aging and functional health (Levy, Slade & Kasl, Reference Levy, Slade and Kasl2002) and depressive symptoms (Kwak et al., Reference Kwak, Ingersoll-Dayton and Burgard2014), no previous study has conducted a joint analysis of potential variables that might explain the association between negative self-perceptions of aging and mental health. Therefore, the aim of the present research, drawing upon Becca Levy’s (Reference Levy2009) Stereotype-Embodiment Theory, lies in providing data about potential psychological processes that explain the relationship between self-perceptions of aging and psychological distress in middle-aged and older adults. Specifically, this study aims to analyze the relationship between self-perceptions of aging and emotional problems (symptoms of depression and anxiety) in middle-aged and older adults, exploring the role of perceived control and pleasant activities in this relationship. Our hypotheses are: (1) negative self-perceptions of aging will be directly and significantly related to symptoms of depression and anxiety; (2) negative self-perceptions of aging will have an inverse and significant relationship with perceived control and pleasant activities; (3) perceived control and pleasant activities will show an inverse and significant association with symptoms of depression and anxiety; and (4) the association of negative self-perceptions of aging with symptoms of depression and anxiety will be indirect and serial through perceived control and pleasant activities.
Method
Participants and Procedure
The sample of the present study consisted of 315 participants aged between 40 and 90 years (M=58.8; SD=10.8), of whom 67.9% were women. The inclusion criteria to participate were: (1) being 40 years of age or older; (2) not having a diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment/dementia or showing an apparent cognitive deficit that would prevent the correct execution of the assessment; and (3) not attending a daycare center or nursing home. Power analysis showed that the sample size was sufficient to detect a medium effect size (f 2 = .15) with a target power of .80, which is adequate according to Cohen (Reference Cohen1988).
Regarding the procedure, the project was approved by the Ethics Committee of Rey Juan Carlos University. Participants were recruited through social networks (Whatsapp, Facebook, and Linkedln) and cultural centers for seniors that collaborated with the research team. Therefore, the type of sampling for the present study was non-probabilistic by convenience. All participants were required to complete informed consent before the evaluation and did not receive financial or any other type of compensation for their participation. Since data collection took place while COVID-19 pandemic restrictions were still in effect, assessments were conducted online.
Measures
The following sociodemographic variables were collected: gender, age, marital status, educational level, and current employment status. These variables were included as covariates in both models.
Self-perceptions of aging. This variable was measured by the Attitudes Toward One’s Own Aging Subscale (Liang & Bollen, Reference Liang and Bollen1983), using the correction of Levy, Slade, Kunkel et al. (Reference Levy, Slade, Kunkel and Kasl2002). It consists of five items (e.g., “Things keep getting worse as I get older”). Higher scores indicate higher levels of negative self-perceptions of aging. Cronbach’s α in the present study was .70.
Perceived control. Perceived control was assessed through the Spanish version (Pedroso-Chaparro, Cabrera et al., Reference Pedroso-Chaparro, Cabrera, Fernandes-Pires, Márquez-González and Losada-Baltar2023) of the Perceived Restrictions of Personal Control and Perceived Dominance scale (Smith et al., Reference Smith, Fisher, Ryan, Clarke, House and Weir2013). This is a 10-item scale (e.g., “What happens in my life is often out of my control”; “I can do almost anything I set my mind to”). Higher scores indicate more perceived control. Cronbach’s α in the present study was .86.
Pleasant activities. The Pleasurable Activities Questionnaire (PES-AD; Logsdon & Teri, Reference Logsdon and Teri1997) was used. Specifically, the modified version of the PES-AD (Chattillion et al., Reference Chattillion, Mausbach, Roepke, von Känel, Mills, Dimsdale, Allison, Ziegler, Patterson, Ancoli-Israel and Grant2012) was used and showed good psychometric properties (e.g., Cronbach’s alpha of .80). It includes 12 of the 20 total items of the questionnaire (e.g., “Spending time away from home”; “Listening to music”), with the item “Receiving or sending letters” changed to “Receiving or making calls” in order to be more representative of today’s communication behaviors. The response options are Likert-type and range from 1 (“Not at all”) to 3 (“Frequently”). Higher scores indicate more frequency of pleasant activities. A Cronbach’s α coefficient of .71 was obtained in the present study.
Depressive symptoms. Depressive symptomatology was assessed through the Spanish version (Losada et al., Reference Losada, de los Angeles Villareal, Nuevo, Márquez-González, Salazar, Romero-Moreno, Carrillo and Fernández-Fernández2012) of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Scale (CES-D; Radloff, Reference Radloff1977). It consists of 20 items (e.g., “I felt depressed”). Higher scores indicate more depressive symptoms. Cronbach’s α in the present study was .92.
Anxiety symptoms. The Spanish version (Márquez-González et al., Reference Márquez-González, Losada, Fernández-Fernández and Pachana2012) of the Geriatric Anxiety Inventory (GAI; Pachana et al., Reference Pachana, Byrne, Siddle, Koloski, Harley and Arnold2007) was used, which consists of 20 dichotomous items (e.g., “I spend a lot of time worrying”). Higher scores indicate more anxiety symptoms. This scale has been validated in younger adults (Zhai et al., Reference Zhai, Bailey, Rogers and Kneebone2022). Cronbach’s α for the present study was .93.
Data Analysis
Version 28 of the IBM SPSS Statistics program with the Process macro was used for the data analysis. Initially, a descriptive analysis of the sample’s sociodemographic variables was conducted. Subsequently, Pearson correlations of all the variables and covariates were analyzed as a previous step for testing indirect effects (Hayes, Reference Hayes2018). Finally, two multiple mediation models were run in serial to test the direct and indirect effects of self-perceptions of aging on symptoms of depression (Model 1) and anxiety (Model 2) through the variables perceived control and pleasant activities. To control for the potential effect of other variables, the following covariates were introduced in both models: gender, age, marital status, educational level, and employment status. Marital status was included with all its categories in the descriptive analyses but was dichotomized as partner/non-partner for Pearson correlations and both models. As recommended by Hayes (Reference Hayes2018), 95% confidence intervals were used to test the indirect effects and 10,000 bootstrapping samples were generated. All contrasts were performed with a significance level (α) equal to .05.
Results
Descriptive Analysis of Sociodemographic Variables
Regarding the marital status of the 315 participants (100%), 63.2% of them were married, 6.3% were widowed, 8.9% were single, 10.1% divorced, 3.5% separated, 7% had an unmarried partner, and 1% reported another marital status (e.g., they were in the process of divorce). Regarding educational level, 0.6% had no formal education, 6% had primary education, 12.5% had secondary education, 21.9% had completed high school, 40% had a university degree, and 19% had postgraduate studies. Finally, regarding current employment status, 55.2% of the total sample were employed, while 44.8% were not.
Correlational Analysis of the Variables and Covariates
Table 1 shows the correlations between the variables and covariates. As observed, more negative self-perceptions of aging were negatively correlated with perceived control and engagement in pleasant activities, while they were positively correlated with depressive and anxious symptomatology. Perceived control, in addition to its inverse relationship with self-perceptions of aging, was positively correlated with engagement in pleasant activities and negatively correlated with depressive symptomatology and anxiety. Pleasant activities, in addition to being negatively associated with self-perceptions of aging and positively associated with perceived control, were associated with lower depressive and anxiety symptoms. Finally, symptoms of depression and anxiety, besides being significantly related to the rest of the variables mentioned, had a significant association between them.
Table 1. Correlations between the study variables and covariates
a 1 = male, 2 = female;
b 1 = with a partner, 2 = without a partner;
c 1 = working, 2 = not working;
d Higher scores indicate higher levels of negative self-perceptions of aging.
* p < .05;
** p < .01.
Regarding the covariates, being a woman was associated with higher levels of negative self-perceptions of aging as well as greater symptoms of depression and anxiety; older participants had more negative self-perceptions of aging, as did those without a partner and who were not employed; finally, individuals with lower levels of education reported engaged in pleasant activities less frequency and experienced more symptoms of depression and anxiety.
Model 1: Self-perceptions of Aging, Perceived Control and Pleasant Activities on Depressive Symptoms
The obtained findings for Model 1 are shown in Table 2 and Figure 1. The analysis of the total direct effect of self-perceptions of aging on depressive symptoms (Figure 1A) showed that higher levels of negative self-perceptions of aging were associated with higher depressive symptoms. Without including perceived control and pleasant activities, the model explained 35.6% of the total variance of depressive symptomatology (F[6, 308] = 28.36; p < .01).
Table 2. Direct and indirect effects of the relationship between self-perceptions of aging and depressive symptoms across perceived control and pleasant activities
Note: L = lower; S.C. = standardized coefficients; U = upper.
* p < .05;
** p < .01.
Figure 1. A) Total direct effect of self-perceptions of aging on depressive symptomatology. B) Direct and indirect effects of self-perceptions of aging on depressive symptomatology through perceived control and pleasant activities.
Note: Covariates have been included in the model, but have not been represented graphically to facilitate its understanding; * p < .05; ** p < .01.
As shown in Figure 1B, when perceived control and pleasant activities were included, the direct effect of self-perceptions of aging on depressive symptoms was still significant (Table 2). Higher levels of negative self-perceptions of aging were related to lower levels of perceived control. In addition, more negative self-perceptions of aging and less perceived control were associated with lower levels of pleasant activities. Thus, lower levels of perceived control and pleasant activities were related to higher symptoms of depression. With respect to the covariates, younger age and lower educational level were significantly associated with greater depressive symptoms (none of the others showed significant effects).
Indirect effects of negative self-perceptions of aging on depressive symptoms were found through the two proposed variables (Table 2): the first through perceived control, and the second through pleasant activities. Finally, a serial indirect effect was found through perceived control and pleasant activities (i.e., participants with worse self-perceptions of aging showed a lower level of perceived control and, in turn, a lower frequency of pleasant activities, which was associated with higher symptoms of depression). This model explained 46.1% of the total variance of depressive symptoms (F[8, 306] = 32.65; p < .01). Therefore, including the variables analyzed for understanding the association between self-perceptions of aging and depressive symptoms, the total variance explained for depressive symptomatology increased from 35.6% to 46.1%, while the standardized regression weight of self-perceptions of aging on symptoms of depression decreased from .56 to .38.
Model 2: Self-perceptions of Aging, Perceived Control and Pleasant Activities on Anxiety Symptoms
The results of Model 2 are shown in Table 3 and Figure 2. The total direct effect of self-perceptions of aging on anxious symptomatology (Figure 2A) showed that higher levels of negative self-perceptions of aging were related to the presence of higher anxious symptomatology. Without considering perceived control and pleasant activities, the model explains 23.9% of the total variance of anxious symptomatology (F[6, 308] = 16.10; p < .01).
Table 3. Direct and indirect effects of the relationship between self-perceptions of aging and anxiety symptoms across perceived control and pleasant activities
Note: L = lower; S.C. = standardized coefficients; U = upper.
* p < .05;
** p < .01.
Figure 2. A) Total direct effect of self-perceptions of aging on anxiety symptomatology. B) Direct and indirect effects of self-perceptions of aging on anxiety symptomatology through perceived control and pleasant activities.
Note: Covariates have been included in the model, but have not been represented graphically to facilitate its understanding; * p < .05; ** p < .01.
Regarding the model analysis incorporating perceived control and pleasant activities (Table 3, Figure 2B), the results showed that higher levels of negative self-perceptions of aging were associated with lower levels of perceived control and increased anxious symptoms. In turn, more negative self-perceptions of aging and less perceived control were related to reduced frequency of pleasant activities. Also, lower levels of perceived control and lower frequency of pleasant activities were associated with higher levels of anxious symptoms. With respect to the covariates, higher levels of anxiety symptoms were associated with younger age and lower educational level (none of the other covariates were significant).
Finally, indirect effects of negative self-perceptions of aging on anxiety symptoms were identified (Table 3) through perceived control and pleasant activities. Additionally, a serial indirect effect was observed, operating through perceived control and then pleasant activities (i.e., more negative self-perceptions of aging were associated with lower levels of perceived control and, in turn, to lower pleasant activities, which were associated with higher symptoms of anxiety). This model explained 34.8% of the total variance of anxiety symptoms (F[8, 306] = 20.37; p < .01). Thus, considering the variables analyzed in this model to understand the relationship between self-perceptions of aging and anxious symptoms, the total explained variance of anxiety symptomatology increased from 23.9% to 34.8%, and the standardized regression weight of self-perceptions of aging on symptoms of anxiety decreased from .45 to .27.
Discussion
The objective of this study was to examine the role of perceived control and engagement in pleasant activities in the relationship between negative self-perceptions of aging and symptoms of depression and anxiety in middle-aged and older adults. To achieve this, a serial analysis was conducted to examine the direct and indirect effects of self-perceptions of aging on distress, through perceived control and pleasant activities.
The findings align with previous research, demonstrating a strong association between negative self-perceptions of aging and symptoms of depression and anxiety. For instance, in a sample of individuals aged 60 and above, Bryant et al. (Reference Bryant, Bei, Gilson, Komiti, Jackson and Judd2012) observed that those with more positive views on aging scored lower on both the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, Reference Radloff1977) and the Geriatric Anxiety Inventory (GAI; Pachana et al., Reference Pachana, Byrne, Siddle, Koloski, Harley and Arnold2007). These results are also consistent with other studies (Levy et al., Reference Levy, Pilver and Pietrzak2014, Reference Levy, Chung, Slade, Van Ness and Pietrzak2019).
The data also revealed a significant inverse relationship between negative self-perceptions of aging and both perceived control and engagement in pleasant activities. These findings are consistent with previous research. For instance, previous studies identified a connection between negative self-perceptions of aging and reduced levels of perceived control (Lee et al., Reference Lee, Lee and An2020; Luo et al., Reference Luo, Li and Chui2020) as well as lower frequency of pleasant activities (De Paula Couto et al., Reference De Paula Couto, Ekerdt, Fung, Hess and Rothermund2022; Hicks & Siedlecki, Reference Hicks and Siedlecki2017; Lee et al., Reference Lee, Lee and An2020; Robertson & Kenny, Reference Robertson and Kenny2016). The results further indicate that participants with lower levels of perceived control and engagement in pleasant activities also exhibited higher levels of depressive and anxious symptoms, consistent with prior research (e.g., Col et al., Reference Col, Kose and Basaran2022; Dupuis & Smale, Reference Dupuis and Smale1995; Kim et al., Reference Kim, Kim and Han2020; Kwak et al., Reference Kwak, Ingersoll-Dayton and Burgard2014; Lachman & Weaver, Reference Lachman and Weaver1998; Yoshida et al., Reference Yoshida, Iwasa, Ishioka and Suzukamo2021; Zautra et al., Reference Zautra, Davis, Reich, Sturgeon, Arewasikporn and Tennen2012).
Finally, regarding the main objective of the present study, the results suggest that the relationship between self-perceptions of aging and symptoms of depression and anxiety was indirect and serial through the perception of control and the frequency of pleasant activities. This means that higher levels of negative self-perceptions of aging were associated with lower levels of perceived control, which in turn were associated with lower engagement in pleasant activities, related to more symptoms of depression and anxiety. Moreover, the results showed that the standardized regression coefficient for self-perceptions of aging on depression and anxiety symptoms decreased when perceived control and pleasant activities were added to the models. Additionally, the percentage of variance in distress increased when the variables perceived control and frequency of pleasant activities were included, rising from 35.6% to 46.1% for depressive symptoms and from 23.9% to 34.8% for anxiety symptoms. These findings align with what Kwak et al. (Reference Kwak, Ingersoll-Dayton and Burgard2014), who highlighted the explanatory role of perceived control in the relationship between self-perceptions of aging and depressive symptoms, as well as with what Rodin (Reference Rodin1986) stated, that the impact of perceived control on mental health indicators could be explained by people’s activity levels.
With respect to covariates, the results showed that higher levels of negative self-perceptions of aging were associated with being female, older, not having paid work, and not having a partner. Associations were also found between psychological distress and being female and having a low level of education. The fact that women report higher levels of self-perceptions of aging and more emotional distress could be explained in the context of the double standard of aging hypothesis (Settersten et al., Reference Settersten, Day and Hagestad2020; Sontag, Reference Sontag and Williams1979) that suggests that women’s aging process is perceived more negatively than men’s aging process. The Stereotype-Embodiment Theory (Levy, Reference Levy2009) also supports the idea that older individuals have stronger self-perceptions of aging, as these perceptions become more self-relevant upon reaching the final stage of the life cycle. Regarding marital status, our findings are coherent with other studies suggesting that being married is associated with more positive attitudes toward aging (Bryant et al., Reference Bryant, Bei, Gilson, Komiti, Jackson and Judd2012). Finally, our findings align with research demonstrating associations between higher educational levels and better mental health in older adult samples (Cui et al., Reference Cui, Wang, Lu, Wang and Zhang2019; Sperandei et al., Reference Sperandei, Page, Spittal and Pirkis2023). In relation to the indirect effects models, the only covariates with a significant impact on symptoms of depression and anxiety were low educational level (discussed above) and younger age. Regarding age, the findings align with those of Losada-Baltar et al. (Reference Losada-Baltar, Jiménez-Gonzalo, Gallego-Alberto, Pedroso-Chaparro, Fernandes-Pires and Márquez-González2021), who found that younger participants presented higher levels of loneliness and distress. These data can be explained through the Socioemotional Selectivity Theory (Carstensen et al., Reference Carstensen, Isaacowitz and Charles1999; Löckenhoff & Carstensen, Reference Löckenhoff and Carstensen2004), which states that, as one progresses through the life cycle, one develops a series of strategies (e.g., smaller but closer social networks) that preserve psychological well-being and life satisfaction in the later stages of life.
The results of this study have practical implications. Given the importance of self-perceptions of aging, perceived control, and pleasant activities in explaining psychological distress among middle-aged and older adults, these variables should be considered key therapeutic targets for addressing symptoms of depression and anxiety in this population. Thus, to work on self-perceptions of aging, the guidelines developed by Laidlaw and Kishita (Reference Laidlaw and Kishita2015), which establishes the importance of considering this construct to enhance the benefits of psychological therapy for older people, which could be rather useful. Strategies for addressing and enhancing perceived control throughout adulthood (e.g., Robinson & Lachman, Reference Robinson and Lachman2017; Zautra et al., Reference Zautra, Davis, Reich, Sturgeon, Arewasikporn and Tennen2012), which could be negatively impacted by losses and role transitions (e.g., retirement, onset of health problems, etc.) should also be considered in these interventions. These strategies could be integrated with empirically supported therapies aimed at promoting behavioral activation in older adults (e.g., Orgeta et al., Reference Orgeta, Brede and Livingston2017), which have been shown to be significantly associated with reducing emotional distress in this population.
Although the present study provides relevant data that contributes to the available scientific literature, it has several limitations. The convenience nature of the sample limits the representativeness of the sample and, therefore, the generalizability of the obtained results. The cross-sectional design of the study does not allow causal inferences to be tested and drawn and, with respect to the data analysis used in the present study, it does not allow the mediating role of the variables involved to be tested, merely data supporting their indirect effects to be found. Furthermore, the cross-sectional nature of the study does not allow for determining the direction of the relationships between variables. Other indirect effects models have been performed (see Supplementary Material), which show that placing perceived control and pleasant activities as independent variables, with self-perceptions of aging as a mediator, and symptoms of depression and anxiety as dependent variables, the results remain significant. Therefore, the results and these supplementary analyses indicate a clear interaction between these variables, which ultimately appears to contribute to psychological distress. However, experimental and longitudinal studies are needed to properly determine the direction and causality between the assessed variables. It is also necessary to mention that the sample of the present study has a wide age range. Although there is research that studied self-perceptions of aging in people of very different ages (e.g., Kotter-Grühn & Hess, Reference Kotter-Grühn and Hess2012; Losada-Baltar et al., Reference Losada-Baltar, Jiménez-Gonzalo, Gallego-Alberto, Pedroso-Chaparro, Fernandes-Pires and Márquez-González2021; Sargent-Cox & Anstey, Reference Sargent-Cox and Anstey2015), future studies with enough statistical power should perform analyses testing the potential differential impact that self-perceptions of aging may have on psychological stress, controlling for mediating variables, by age group. Data collection took place during a period when several COVID-19-related restrictions were still in effect, which may have influenced the obtained results. As previous longitudinal findings suggest that a stressful situation such as COVID-19 might have a special impact on people with negative self-perceptions of aging (Losada-Baltar et al., Reference Losada-Baltar, Martínez-Huertas, Jiménez-Gonzalo, Pedroso-Chaparro, Gallego-Alberto, Fernandes-Pires and Márquez-González2022), future studies should consider replicating the obtained findings in a different general context to the one experienced during the pandemic. Finally, additional variables that could significantly contribute to explaining psychological distress, such as loneliness, social support, or physical health, were not included in this study. Future studies should examine whether the observed findings in this study persist after controlling for these variables.
Despite the above-mentioned limitations, the results are congruent with and provide additional support for the Stereotype-Embodiment Theory (Levy, Reference Levy2009). Self-perceptions of aging influence psychological health through multiple pathways, including cognitive (perceived control) and behavioral (pleasant activities) paths. Although the indirect role of perceived control has been addressed by other studies (e.g., Levy, Slade & Kasl, Reference Levy, Slade and Kasl2002), the frequency of pleasant activities is a genuinely novel variable in this relationship. Negative self-perceptions of aging may adversely impact the mental health of middle-aged and older adults by activating maladaptive processes that decrease perceived control, which in turn reduce the chances of engaging in pleasant activities.
Supplementary Material
To view supplementary material for this article, please visit http://doi.org/10.1017/SJP.2025.9.
Data availability statement
The study materials, analytic methods, and data are available from the corresponding author for reproducing the results, replicating the procedure, or upon reasonable request.
Acknowledgments
We express our gratitude to all the study participants and the following centers for their collaboration on the project: Voluntarios Telefónica, Programa de Voluntariado Corporativo de Grupo Telefónica, Fundación Telefónica, Fundación Alicia y Guillermo, Fundación 26 de Diciembre and Entidad Amigos de los Mayores.
Author contribution
Writing-original draft and conceptualization: L.G.-G., M.M.-G., and A.L.-B.; Writing-review and editing: all authors; Data curation: L.G.-G., J.A.F.-P., and M.d.S.P.-C.; Resources: J.A.F.-P., M.d.S.P.-C., C.B.-R., and L.M.P.-C.; Formal analysis: L.G.-G. and J.A.F.-P.; Supervision: M.M.-G. and A.L.-B.; Funding acquisition and investigation: A.L.-B.; Methodology: L.G.-G. and A.L.-B.; Project administration: J.A.F.-P., M.d.S.P.-C., and A.L.-B.
Funding statement
The present study was done in the context of the project PID2023-147446OB-I00, funded by the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades. Laura García-García was supported by a Pre-doctoral grant FPU (FPU22/03084) from the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades; José Adrián Fernandes-Pires was supported by a Pre-Doctoral Grant from the Universidad Rey Juan Carlos; Claudia Benito-Rincón received a Pre-Doctoral Grant FPI (PREP2023- 001169) from the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades; Luis Manuel Pérez-Cardona was supported by a Pre-Doctoral Grant FPI from the Universidad Autonoma de Madrid.
Competing interest
The authors declare none.
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