Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-vdxz6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T19:10:02.414Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Intensity of Habitual Guilt in Men and Women: Differences in Interpersonal Sensitivity and the Tendency towards Anxious-Aggressive Guilt

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 January 2013

Itziar Etxebarria ,
M. José Ortiz ,
Susana Conejero  and
Aitziber Pascual
Itziar Etxebarria*
Affiliation:
Universidad del País Vasco (Spain)
M. José Ortiz
Affiliation:
Universidad del País Vasco (Spain)
Susana Conejero
Affiliation:
Universidad Pública de Navarra (Spain)
Aitziber Pascual
Affiliation:
Universidad del País Vasco (Spain)
*
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Itziar Etxebarria, Department of Basic Psychological Processes, University of the Basque Country, Aptdo. 726, 20080 San Sebastián, (Spain), Phone: +34-943015739. Fax: +34-943015670, E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In this study we analyzed gender differences in the intensity of habitual guilt, as well as those in interpersonal sensitivity and the tendency towards experiencing feelings of guilt with a high anxious-aggressive component. The 360 participants (adolescents, young adults and adults) were asked to relate one of the situations that most frequently caused them to experience guilt and to rank its intensity and that of 9 other emotions they may have experienced at the same time on a 7-point scale. These scales were used to obtain the scores for the anxious-aggressive component of guilt. Two interpersonal sensitivity measures were used: the IRI Empathic Concern scale and an ad hoc measure focusing on the guilt produced by interpersonal events (Interpersonal Guilt). Habitual guilt was found to be more intense in women than in men in all age groups. The results suggest that this difference is linked to differences in interpersonal sensitivity and the tendency to experience types of guilt with a high anxious-aggressive component.

Se analizaron las diferencias de género en intensidad de la culpa habitual, así como en sensibilidad interpersonal y tendencia a experimentar formas de culpa con un alto componente ansioso- agresivo. Se pidió a los 360 participantes –adolescentes, jóvenes y adultos de ambos sexos-que relataran una de las situaciones que más frecuentemente les hacían experimentar sentimientos de culpa, y que señalaran en escalas de 7 puntos, junto a su intensidad, la de 9 emociones más que podían experimentar al mismo tiempo. A partir de estas escalas se obtuvieron las puntuaciones del componente ansioso-agresivo de la culpa. Se utilizaron dos medidas de sensibilidad interpersonal: la escala de Empathic Concern del IRI y una prueba ad hoc de culpa provocada por situaciones interpersonales (Culpa Interpersonal). La culpa habitual era más intensa en las mujeres que en los varones en los tres grupos de edad. Los resultados sugieren que estas diferencias responden a diferencias en sensibilidad interpersonal y en la tendencia a experimentar formas de culpa con un alto componente ansioso-agresivo.

Keywords

guilt intensitygender differencesinterpersonal sensitivityempathyanxietyintensidad de la culpadiferencias de génerosensibilidad interpersonalempatíaansiedad
Type
Research Article
Information
The Spanish Journal of Psychology , Volume 12 , Issue 2 , November 2009 , pp. 540 - 554
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

American Psychological Association (1992). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. American Psychologist, 47(12), 1597–1611.Google Scholar
Baumeister, R. F., Stillwell, A. M., & Heatherton, T. F. (1994). Guilt: An interpersonal approach. Psychological Bulletin, 115(2), 243–267.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baumeister, R. F., Reis, H. T., & Delespaul, P. (1995. Subjective and experiential correlates of guilt in daily life. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21(12), 1256–1268.Google Scholar
Birnbaum, D. W. (1983). Preschoolers' stereotypes about sex differences in emotionality: A reaffirmation. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 143(1), 139–140.Google Scholar
Brody, R. L., & Hall, J. A. (1993). Gender and emotion. In lewis, M. & Haviland, J. M. (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 447–460). New York: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Brody, R. L., & Hall, J. A. (2000). Gender, emotion, and expression. In lewis, M. & Haviland-Jones, J. M. (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 338–349). New York: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Bybee, J. (1998). The emergence of gender differences in guilt during adolescence. In Bybee, J. (Ed.), Guilt and children (pp. 113–125). San Diego, CA.Google Scholar
Crick, N. R., Werner, N. E., Casas, J. F., O'Brien, K. M., Nelson, D. A., Grotpeter, J. K. et al. (1999).Childhood aggression and gender: A new look at an old problem. In Bernstein, D. (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation: Vol. 45. Gender and motivation.(pp. 75–141). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Davis, M. H. (1980). A multidimensional approach to individual differences in empathy. JSAS Catalog of selected Documents in Psychology, 10(85), 1–17.Google Scholar
Deffenbacher, J. L., Oetting, E. R., lynch, R. S., & Morris, C. A. (1996). The expression of anger and its consequences. Behavior Research and Therapy, 34(7), 575–590.Google Scholar
Deffenbacher, J. L., Oetting, E. R., Thwaites, G. A., lynch, R. S., Baker, D. A., Stark, R. S. et al. (1996). State-Trait anger theory and the utility of the trait anger scale. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43(2), 131–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Echeburúa, E., Corral, P., & Amor, P. J. (2001). Estrategias de afrontamiento ante los sentimientos de culpa. [Coping skills in guilt feelings]. Análisis y Modificación de Conducta, 27(116), 905–929.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., & Fabes, R. A. (1998). Prosocial development. In Damon, W. (Series Ed.) & Eisenberg, N. (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (5th ed., pp. 701–778). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., & Lennon, R. (1983). Gender differences in empathy and related capacities. Psychological Bulletin, 94(1), 100–131.Google Scholar
Etxebarria, I. (1992). Sentimientos de culpa y problemática del cambio de valores en la mujer. [Guilt feelings and value change in women]. Revista de Psicología General y Aplicada, 45(1), 91–101.Google Scholar
Etxebarria, I. (1994). “Non-rational guilt”: Predictors of its appearance in processes of change in moral values. Journal of Moral Education, 23(2), 145–164.Google Scholar
Etxebarria, I. (2000). Guilt: An emotion under suspicion. Psicothema, 12(Supl.1), 101–108.Google Scholar
Etxebarria, I., & Apodaca, P. (2008). Both Freud and Hoffman are right: Anxious-aggressive and empathic dimensions of guilt. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 11(1), 159–171.Google Scholar
Etxebarria, I., Isasi, X., & Pérez, J. (2002). The interpersonal nature of guilt-producing events. Age and gender differences. Psicothema, 14(4), 783–787.Google Scholar
Etxebarria, I., & Pérez, J(2003). ¿Qué nos hace sentir culpa? Categorías de eventos en adolescentes y adultos de uno y otro sexo. [What makes us feel guilty? Categories of events in male and female adolescents and adults]. Estudios de Psicología, 24(2), 241–252.Google Scholar
Ferguson, T. J., & Eyre, H. L. (2000). Engendering gender differences in shame and guilt: Stereotypes, socialization, and situational pressures. In Fischer, A. H. (Ed.), Gender and emotion: Social psychological perspectives (pp. 254–276). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Fischer, A. H. (1993). Sex differences in emotionality: Fact or stereotype? Feminism & Psychology, 3(3), 303–318.Google Scholar
Fischer, A. H., & Manstead, S. R. (2000). The relation between gender and emotions in different cultures. In Fischer, A. H. (Ed.), Gender and emotion: Social psychological perspectives (pp. 71–94). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Freud, S. (1961). Civilization and its discontents. In Strachey, J. (Ed. & Trans.), The standard edition of the complete psychologicalworks of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 21, pp. 57–146). London: Hogarth Press. (Original work published 1930)Google Scholar
Freud, S. (1961). The ego and the id. In Strachey, J. (Ed. & Trans.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 19, pp. 3–66). London: Hogarth Press (Original work published 1923)Google Scholar
Fuchs, D., & Thelen, M. H. (1988). Children's expected interpersonal consequences of communicating their affective state and reported likelihood of expression. Child Development, 59(5), 1314–1322.Google Scholar
Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory andwomen's development. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Harvey, O. J., Gore, E. J., Frank, H., & Batres, A. R. (1997). Relationship of shame and guilt to gender and parenting practices. Personality and Individual Differences, 23(1), 135–146.Google Scholar
Hoffman, M. L. (1975). Sex differences in moral internalization and values. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32(4), 720–729.Google Scholar
Hoffman, M. L. (1982). Development of prosocial motivation: Empathy and guilt. In Eisenberg-Berg, N. (Ed.), The development of prosocial behavior (pp. 281–313). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Hoffman, M. L. (1998). Varieties of empathy-based guilt. In Bybee, J. (Ed.), Guilt and children (pp. 91–112). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoffman, M. L. (2000). Empathy and moral development: Implications for caring and justice. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ishikawa, T., & Uchiyama, I. (2002). The relations of empathy and role-taking ability to guilt feelings in adolescence. Japanese Journal of Developmental Psychology, 13(1), 12–19.Google Scholar
Kopper, B. A. (1991). Role of gender, sex role identity, and Type A behavior in anger expression and mental health functioning. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 40(2), 232–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kopper, B. A., & Epperson, D. L. (1996). The experience and expression of anger: Relationships with gender, gender role socialization, depression, and mental health functioning. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43(2), 158–165.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
LaFrance, M., & Banaji, M. (1992). Toward a reconsideration of the gender-emotion relationship. In Clark, M. S. (Ed.), Review of personality and social psychology: Emotion and social behavior (Vol. 14, pp. 178–202). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Larson, R., & Pleck, J. (1999). Hidden feelings: Emotionality in boys and men. In Bernstein, D. (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation: Vol. 45. Gender and motivation. (pp. 25–74). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Lennon, R., & Eisenberg, N. (1987). Gender and age differences in empathy and sympathy. In Eisenberg, N. & Strayer, J. (Eds.), Empathy and its development (pp. 195–217). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lutwak, N., & Ferrari, J. R. (1996). Moral affect and cognitive processes: Differentiating shame from guilt among men and women. Personality and Individual Differences, 21(6), 891–896.Google Scholar
Lutwak, N., Ferrari, J. R., & Cheek, J. M. (1998). Shame, guilt, and identity in men and women: The role of identity orientation and processing style in moral affects. Personality and Individual Differences, 25(6), 1027–1036.Google Scholar
Lutwak, N., Panish, J. B., Ferrari, J. R., & Razzino, B. E. (2001). Shame and guilt and their relationship to positive expectations and anger expressiveness. Adolescence, 36(144), 641–653.Google Scholar
Madden, T. E., Feldman Barret, L., & Pietromonaco, P. E. (2000). Sex differences in anxiety and depression: Empirical evidence and methodological questions. In Fischer, A. H. (Ed.), Gender and emotion: Social psychological perspectives (pp. 277–297). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Miceli, M., & Castelfranchi, C. (1998). How to silence one's conscience: Cognitive defenses against the feeling of guilt. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 28(3), 287–318.Google Scholar
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1991). Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100(4), 569–582.Google Scholar
Shields, S. A. (1987). Women, men, and the dilemma of emotion. In Shaver, P. & Hendrick, C. (Eds.), Sex and gender. Review of Personality and Social Psychology (Vol. 7, pp. 229–250). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Shields, S. A. (1991). Gender in the psychology of emotion: A selective research review. In Strongman, K. T. (Ed.), International review of studies on emotion (Vol. 1, pp. 227–245). New York, NY: Willey.Google Scholar
Shields, S. A. (2002). Speaking from the heart. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Tangney, J. P. (1990). Assessing individual differences in proneness to shame and guilt: Development of the Self-Conscious Affect and Attribution Inventory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(1), 102–111.Google Scholar
Tangney, J. P. (1991). Moral affect: the good, the bad, and the ugly. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(4), 598–607.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tangney, J. P.& Dearing, R. L. (2002). Gender differences in morality. In Bornstein, R. F. & Masling, J. M. (Eds.), The psychodynamics of gender and gender role (pp. 251–269). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Tangney, J. P., Marschall, D., Rosenberg, K., Barlow, D. H., & Wagner, P. (1994). Children's and adult's accounts of shame and guilt, and pride experiences. Unpublished manuscript, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA.Google Scholar
Tavris, C. (1989). Anger: the misunderstood emotion. New York: Simon & Schuster.Google Scholar
Thompson, R. A., & Hoffman, M. L. (1980). Empathy and the development of guilt in children. Developmental Psychology, 16(2), 155–156.Google Scholar
Walter, J. L., & Burnaford, S. M. (2006). Developmental changes in adolescents' guilt and shame: The role of family climate and gender. North American Journal of Psychology, 8(2), 321–338.Google Scholar