Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jkksz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T06:51:55.930Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Describing Callous Unemotional Traits and Stressful Life Event Trajectories: Differences on Risk Factors and Mental Health Outcomes from the Age of 3 to 10

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 May 2022

Natalia Pueyo
Affiliation:
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (Spain)
José-Blas Navarro
Affiliation:
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (Spain)
Núria De La Osa
Affiliation:
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (Spain)
Eva Penelo
Affiliation:
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (Spain)
Lourdes Ezpeleta*
Affiliation:
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (Spain)
*
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Lourdes Ezpeleta. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Departament de Psicologia Clínica i de la Salut. Edifici B. 08193 Bellaterra (Barcelona). Spain. Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Callous Unemotional (CU) traits are associated with different environmental risk factors, such as negative stressful life events (SLE). The most common studied SLE associated with CU trait has been childhood maltreatment, but less is known about how other SLE impact the development of CU traits. Therefore, this work examines risk factors, personal factors (executive functioning), and mental health outcomes associated with the trajectories of Callous Unemotional (CU) traits and Stressful Life Events (SLE) in a community sample of children. A cohort of 377 preschoolers were followed up between ages 3 and 10. Several risk factors and outcomes for three trajectory groups (high CU/SLE; high CU/low SLE; and the reference group with low CU/SLE) were analyzed by using multiple post-hoc comparisons. We hypothesized that children with high CU/SLE would face more contextual risk factors, more executive functioning difficulties and more mental health problems than children with high CU/low SLE or the reference group. At the age of 3, children who showed high CU/SLE faced more early contextual adversity, including socioeconomic difficulties and maternal antisocial behavior than the other groups of children. At the age of 10, children with high CU/SLE presented more peer problems and higher psychopathology symptoms than the reference group, but no differences on mental health outcomes in comparison to the high CU/low SLE group. These results have potential implications for clinical practice and studies attempting to identify different CU subtypes in children.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
© Universidad Complutense de Madrid and Colegio Oficial de Psicólogos de Madrid, 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

José Blas-Navarro, Núria de la Osa, Eva Penelo, and Lourdes Ezpeleta work for the Unitat d’Epidemiologia i de Diagnòstic en Psicopatologia del Desenvolupament, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Natalia Pueyo, Núria de la Osa, and Lourdes Ezpeleta work for the Departament de Psicologia Clínica i de la Salut, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. José-Blas Navarro and Eva Penelo work for the Departament de Psicobiologia i de Metodologia de les Ciències de la Salut, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona.

Funding statement: This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (Grant PGC2018–095239–B–I00 [MICIU/FEDER]).

Conflicts of Interest: None.

References

Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2003). Manual for the ASEBA adult forms & profiles: For ages 18–59: Adult self-report and adult behavior checklist. ASEBA.Google Scholar
Allen, J. L., Bird, E., & Chhoa, C. Y. (2018). Bad boys and mean girls: Callous-unemotional traits, management of disruptive behavior in school, the teacher-student relationship and academic motivation. Frontiers in Education, 3, Article 108. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2018.00108CrossRefGoogle Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th Ed.). AuthorGoogle Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th Ed.). Author. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barker, E. D., Oliver, B. R., Viding, E., Salekin, R. T., & Maughan, B. (2011). The impact of prenatal maternal risk, fearless temperament and early parenting on adolescent callous-unemotional traits: A 14-year longitudinal investigation. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(8), 878888. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02397.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Byrd, A. L., Hawes, S. W., Loeber, R., & Pardini, D. A. (2016). Interpersonal callousness from childhood to adolescence: Developmental trajectories and early risk factors. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 47(3), 467482. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2016.1144190CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cardinale, E. M., & Marsh, A. A. (2020). The reliability and validity of the Inventory of Callous Unemotional traits: A meta-analytic review. Assessment, 27(1), 5771. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191117747392CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Catone, G., Almerico, L., Pezzella, A., Riccio, M. P., Bravaccio, C., Bernardo, P., Muratori, P., Pascotto, A., Pisano, S., & Senese, V. P. (2021). The relation of callous-unemotional traits and bullying in early adolescence is independent from sex and age and moderated by conduct problems. Brain Sciences, 11(8), Article 1059. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11081059CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cecil, C. A. M., Mccrory, E. J., Barker, E. D., Guiney, J., & Viding, E. (2018). Characterising youth with callous-unemotional traits and concurrent anxiety: Evidence for a high-risk clinical group. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 27(7), 885898. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-017-1086-8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cecil, C. A. M., Lysenko, L. J., Jaffee, S. R., Pingault, J.-B., Smith, R. G., Relton, C. L., Woodward, G., Mcardle, W., Mill, J., & Barker, E. D. (2014). Environmental risk, oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) methylation and youth callous-unemotional traits: A 13-year longitudinal study. Molecular Psychiatry, 19(10), 10711077. https://doi.org/10.1038/mp.2014.95CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155159. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Craig, S. G., Goulter, N., & Moretti, M. M. (2021). A systematic review of primary and secondary callous-unemotional traits and psychopathy variants in youth. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 24(1), 6591. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-020-00329-xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Croft, S., Stride, C., Maughan, B., & Rowe, R. (2015). Validity of the strengths and difficulties questionnaire in preschool-aged children. Pediatrics, 135(5), e1210e1219. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2014-2920CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dackis, M. N., Rogosch, F. A., & Cicchetti, D. (2015). Child maltreatment, callous-unemotional traits, and defensive responding in high-risk children: An investigation of emotion-modulated startle response. Development and Psychopathology, 27, 15271545. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579415000929CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dadds, M. R., Kimonis, E. R., Schollar-Root, O., Moul, C., & Hawes, D. J. (2018). Are impairments in emotion recognition a core feature of callous-unemotional traits? Testing the primary versus secondary variants model in children. Development and Psychopathology, 30(1), 6777. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579417000475CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Devenish, B., Hooley, M., & Mellor, D. (2017). The pathways between socioeconomic status and adolescent outcomes: A systematic review. American Journal of Community Psychology, 59(1–2), 219238. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12115CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Docherty, M., Boxer, P., Huesmann, L. R., O’Brien, M., & Bushman, B. (2016). Exploring primary and secondary variants of psychopathy in adolescents in detention and in the community. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 45(5), 564578. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2014.979934CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Docherty, M., Boxer, P., Huesmann, L. R., O’Brien, M., & Bushman, B. (2017). Assessing callous-unemotional traits in adolescents: Determining cutoff scores for the Inventory of Callous and Unemotional traits. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 73(3), 257278. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22313CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Donohue, M. R., Hoyniak, C. P., Tillman, R., Barch, D. M., & Luby, J. (2021). Associations of observed callous-unemotional behaviors in early childhood with conduct problems and substance use over 14 years. Development and Psychopathology. Advance online publication. http://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579421000791CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Euler, F., Jenkel, N., Stadler, C., Schmeck, K., Fegert, J. M., Kölch, M., & Schmid, M. (2015). Variants of girls and boys with conduct disorder: Anxiety symptoms and callous-unemotional traits. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43(4), 773785. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9946-xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evans, S. C., Burke, J. D., Roberts, M. C., Fite, P. J., Lochman, J. E., de la Peña, F. R., & Reed, G. M. (2017). Irritability in child and adolescent psychopathology: An integrative review for ICD–11. Clinical Psychology Review, 53, 2945. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.01.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ezpeleta, L., de la Osa, N., & Doménech, J. M. (2014). Prevalence of DSM-IV disorders, comorbidity and impairment in 3-year-old Spanish preschoolers. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 49(1), 145155. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-013-0683-1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ezpeleta, L., de la Osa, N., Granero, R., Penelo, E., & Domènech, J. M. (2013). Inventory of Callous-Unemotional Traits in a community sample of preschoolers. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 42(1), 91105. https://10.1080/15374416.2012.734221CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ezpeleta, L., Granero, R., de la Osa, N., & Doménech, J. M. (2017). Developmental trajectories of callous-unemotional traits, anxiety and oppositionality in 3-7 year-old children in the general population. Personality and Individual Differences, 111, 124133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.02.005CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ezpeleta, L., Granero, R., de la Osa, N., Penelo, E., & Domènech, J. M. (2013). Psychometric properties of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (3-4) in 3-year-old preschoolers. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 54(3), 282291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2012.07.009CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ezpeleta, L., Granero, R., Penelo, E., de la Osa, N., & Domènech, J. M. (2015). Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functioning-Preschool (BRIEF-P) applied to teachers: Psychometric properties and usefulness for disruptive disorders in 3-year-old preschoolers. Journal of Attention Disorders, 19(6), 476488. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054712466439CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ezpeleta, L., Penelo, E., de la Osa, N., Blas Navarro, J., Fañanás, L., & Fatjó-Vilas, M. (2019). Association of OXTR rs53576 with the developmental trajectories of callous-unemotional traits and stressful life events in 3- to 9-year-old community children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 47, 16511662. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-019-00548-zCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fanti, K. A., & Kimonis, E. (2017). Heterogeneity in externalizing problems at age 3: Association with age 15 biological and environmental outcomes. Developmental psychology, 53(7), 12301241. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000317CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fanti, K. A., & Lordos, A. (2021). Parental antisocial and psychopathic traits influence adolescent psychopathology. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology. Advanced online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X211013517CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fontaine, N. M. G., Hanscombe, K. B., Berg, M. T., McCrory, E. J., & Viding, E. (2018). Trajectories of callous-unemotional traits in childhood predict different forms of peer victimization in adolescence. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 47(3), 458466. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2015.1105139CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fontaine, N. M. G., McCrory, E. J. P., Boivin, M., Moffitt, T. E., & Viding, E. (2011). Predictors and outcomes of joint trajectories of callous-unemotional traits and conduct problems in childhood. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 120(3), 730742. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022620CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fontaine, N. M. G., Rijsdijk, F. V, McCrory, E. J. P., & Viding, E. (2010). Etiology of different developmental trajectories of callous-unemotional traits. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(7), 656664. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2010.03.014Google ScholarPubMed
Frick, P. J. (2004). The Inventory of Callous-Unemotional Traits [Database record]. APA PsycTests. https://doi.org/10.1037/t62639-000CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frick, P. J., & Myers, T. D. W. (2018). Conduct disorder and callous-unemotional traits. In Lochman, J. E. & Matthys, W. (Eds.), The Wiley handbook of disruptive and impulse-control disorders (pp. 3754). Wiley Blackwell. http://doi.org/10.1002/9781119092254.ch3Google Scholar
Frick, P. J., Ray, J. V., Thornton, L. C., & Kahn, R. E. (2014). Can callous-unemotional traits enhance the understanding, diagnosis, and treatment of serious conduct problems in children and adolescents? A comprehensive review. Psychological Bulletin, 140(1), 157. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033076CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Girotti, M., Adler, S. M., Bulin, S. E., Fucich, E. A., Paredes, D., & Morilak, D. A. (2018). Prefrontal cortex executive processes affected by stress in health and disease. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 85(1), 161179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2017.07.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodman, R. (1997). The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 38(5), 581586. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01545.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goulter, N., Kimonis, E. R., Hawes, S. W., Stepp, S., & Hipwell, A. E. (2017). Identifying stable variants of callous-unemotional traits: A longitudinal study of at-risk girls. Developmental Psychology, 53(12), 23642376. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000394CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guerrero, M., Hoffmann, M., & Pulkki-Råback, L. (2020). Psychometric properties of the Adult Self-Report: Data from over 11,000 American adults. Stats, 3(4), 465474. http://doi.org/10.3390/stats3040029CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hawes, D. J., Price, M. J., & Dadds, M. R. (2014). Callous-unemotional traits and the treatment of conduct problems in childhood and adolescence: A comprehensive review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 17(3), 248267. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-014-0167-1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hawes, S. W., Byrd, A. L., Waller, R., Lynam, D. R., & Pardini, D. A. (2017). Late childhood interpersonal callousness and conduct problem trajectories interact to predict adult psychopathy. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 58(1), 5563. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12598CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hawes, D. J., Dadds, M. R., Frost, A., & Hasking, P. A. (2011) Do childhood callous-unemotional traits drive change in parenting practices?, Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 40(4), 507518. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2011.581624CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hollingshead, A. B. (1975). Four factor index of social status [Unpublished manuscript]. Department of Sociology, Yale University.Google Scholar
Huang, J., Fan, L., Lin, K., & Wang, Y. (2020). Variants of children with psychopathic tendencies in a community sample. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 51(4), 563571. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-019-00939-9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Humayun, S., Kahn, R. E., Frick, P. J., & Viding, E. (2014). Callous-unemotional traits and anxiety in a community sample of 7-year-olds. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 43(1), 3642. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2013.814539CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Humphreys, K. L., & Zeanah, C. H. (2015). Deviations from the expectable environment in early childhood and emerging psychopathology. Neuropsychopharmacology, 40(1), 154170. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2014.165CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hyde, L. W., Waller, R., Trentacosta, C. J., Shaw, D. S., Neiderhiser, J. M., Ganiban, J. M., Reiss, D., & Leve, L. D. (2016). Heritable and nonheritable pathways to early callous-unemotional behaviors. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 173(9), 903910. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.15111381CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Isquith, P. K., & Gioia, G. A. (2003). Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function - Preschool Version. Psychological Assessment Resources.Google Scholar
Johnson, J. H. (1982). Life events as stressors in childhood and adolescence. In Lahey, B. B. & Kazdin, A. E. (Eds.), Advances in clinical child psychology (Vol. 5, 219253). Plenum Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-9811-0_6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, J. H., & McCutcheon, S. M. (1980). Assessing life stress in older children and adolescents: Preliminary findings with the Life Events Checklist. In Saranson, I & Spielberger, C. D. (Eds.), Stress and anxiety (pp. 111125). Hemisphere.Google Scholar
Kahn, R. E., Byrd, A. L., & Pardini, D. A. (2013). Callous-unemotional traits robustly predict future criminal offending in young men. Law and Human Behavior, 37, 8797. https://doi.org/10.1037/b0000003CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kahn, R. E., Frick, P. J., Youngstrom, E. A., Kogos Youngstrom, J., Feeny, N. C., & Findling, R. L. (2013). Distinguishing primary and secondary variants of callous-unemotional traits among adolescents in a clinic-referred sample. Psychological Assessment, 25(3), 966978. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032880CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karpman, B. (1946). A yardstick for measuring psychopathy. Federal Probation, 10(4), 2631.Google Scholar
Kimonis, E. R., Centifanti, L. C. M., Allen, J. L., & Frick, P. J. (2014). Reciprocal influences between negative life events and callous-unemotional traits. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42(8), 12871298. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9882-9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kimonis, E. R., Fanti, K. A., Anastassiou-Hadjicharalambous, X., Mertan, B., Goulter, N., & Katsimicha, E. (2016). Can callous-unemotional traits be reliably measured in preschoolers? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(4), 625638. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-015-0075-yCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klingzell, I., Fanti, K. A., Colins, O. F., Frogner, L., Andershed, A., Andershed, H. (2016). Early childhood trajectories of conduct problems and callous-unemotional traits: The role of fearlessness and psychopathic personality dimensions. Child Psychiatry & Human Development 47, 236247. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-015-0560-0CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maliken, A. C., & Katz, L. F. (2013). Exploring the impact of parental psychopathology and emotion regulation on evidence-based parenting interventions: A transdiagnostic approach to improving treatment effectiveness. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 16(2), 173186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-013-0132-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meehan, A. J., Maughan, B., Cecil, C. A. M., & Barker, E. D. (2017). Interpersonal callousness and co-occurring anxiety: Developmental validity of an adolescent taxonomy. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 126(2), 225236. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000235CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mills-Koonce, W. R., Willoughby, M. T., Garrett-Peters, P., Wagner, N., & Vernon-Feagans, L. (2016). The interplay among socioeconomic status, household chaos, and parenting in the prediction of child conduct problems and callous-unemotional behaviors. Development and Psychopathology, 28(03), 757771. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579416000298CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moore, A. A., Blair, J. R., Hettema, J. M., & Roberson-Nay, R. (2019). The genetic underpinnings of callous-unemotional traits: A systematic research review, Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 100, 8597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.02.018CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muñoz, L. C., & Frick, P. J. (2012). Callous-unemotional traits and their implication for understanding and treating aggressive and violent youths. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 39(6), 794813. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854812437019CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Papageorgiou, V., Kalyva, E., Dafoulis, V., & Vostanis, P. (2008). Differences in parents’ and teachers’ ratings of ADHD symptoms and other mental health problems. The European Journal of Psychiatry, 22(4), 200210. https://doi.org/10.4321/S0213-61632008000400003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peverill, M., Dirks, M. A., Narvaja, T., Herts, K. L., Comer, J. S., & McLaughlin, K. (2021). Socioeconomic status and child psychopathology in the United States: A meta-analysis of population-based studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 83, Article 101933. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2020.101933CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pihet, S., Etter, S., Schmid, M., & Kimonis, E. R. (2015). Assessing callous-unemotional traits in adolescents: Validity of the Inventory of Callous-Unemotional traits across gender, age, and community/institutionalized status. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 37, 407421. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-014-9472-8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Piotrowska, P. J., Stride, C. B., Croft, S. E., & Rowe, R. (2015). Socioeconomic status and antisocial behavior among children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 35, 4755. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2014.11.003CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reiss, F., Meyrose, A.-K., Otto, C., Lampert, T., Klasen, F., & Ravens-Sieberer, U. (2019). Socioeconomic status, stressful life situations and mental health problems in children and adolescents: Results of the German BELLA cohort-study. PLOS ONE, 14, Article e0213700. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0213700CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robertson, E. L., Frick, P. J., Walker, T. M., Kemp, E. C., Ray, J. V., Thornton, L. C., Wall Myers, T. D., Steinberg, L., & Cauffman, E. (2020). Callous-unemotional traits and risk of gun carrying and use during crime. American Journal of Psychiatry, 177(9), 827833. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2020.19080861CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salekin, R. T. (2016). Psychopathy in childhood: Why should we care about grandiose–manipulative and daring–impulsive traits? British Journal of Psychiatry, 209(3), 189191. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.115.179051CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schneider, W., & Schenk-Fontaine, A. (2021). Growing up unequal: Objective and subjective economic disparities and authoritarian parenting. Child Abuse & Neglect, Article 105332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105332CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Šidák, Z. K. (1967). Rectangular confidence regions for the means of multivariate normal distributions. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 62, 626633. http://doi.org/10.2307/2283989Google Scholar
Song, J.-H., Waller, R., Hyde, L. W., & Olson, S. L. (2016). Early callous-unemotional behavior, theory-of-mind, and a fearful/inhibited temperament predict externalizing problems in middle and late childhood. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(6), 12051215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-015-0099-3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Squillaci, M., & Benoit, V. (2021). Role of Callous and Unemotional (CU) Traits on the development of youth with behavioral disorders: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(9), Article 4712. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094712CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stone, L. L., Otten, R., Engels, R. C. M. E., Vermulst, A. A., & Janssens, J. M. A. M. (2010). Psychometric properties of the parent and teacher versions of the strengths and difficulties questionnaire for 4- to 12-year-olds: A review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 13(3), 254274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-010-0071-2CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ueno, K., Ackermann, K., Freitag, C. M., & Schwenck, C. (2021). Assessing callous-unemotional traits in 6- to 18-year-olds: Reliability, validity, factor structure, and norms of the German version of the Inventory of Callous–Unemotional traits. Assessment, 28(2), 567584. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191119847766CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waller, R., Hyde, L. W., Baskin-Sommers, A. R., & Olson, S. L. (2016). Interactions between callous unemotional behaviors and executive function in early childhood predict later aggression and lower peer-liking in late-childhood. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 45, 597609. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0184-2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waller, R., & Hyde, L. W. (2018). Callous-unemotional behaviors in early childhood: The development of empathy and prosociality gone awry. Current Opinion in Psychology, 20, 1116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.07.037CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waller, R., Shaw, D. S., Neiderhiser, J. M., Ganiban, J. M., Natsuaki, M. N., Reiss, D., Trentacosta, C. J., Leve, L. D., & Hyde, L. W. (2017). Toward an understanding of the role of the environment in the development of early callous behavior. Journal of Personality, 85(1), 90103. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12221CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Willoughby, M. T., Mills‐Koonce, W. R., Gottfredson, N. C., & Wagner, N. J. (2014). Measuring callous unemotional behaviors in early childhood: Factor structure and the prediction of stable aggression in middle childhood. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 36(1), 3042. https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.2014.371CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
World Health Organization. (2018). International classification of diseases for mortality and morbidity statistics (11th Rev.). https://www.who.int/standards/classifications/classification-of-diseasesGoogle Scholar
Vukojević, M., Zovko, A., Talić, I., Tanović, M., Rešić, B., Vrdoljak, I., & Splavski, B. (2017). Parental socioeconomic status as a predictor of physical and mental health outcomes in children - Literature review. Acta Clinica Croatica, 56(4), 742748. https://doi.org/10.20471/acc.2017.56.04.23Google ScholarPubMed
Zhong, C., Wang, M.-C., Shou, Y., Zhang, X., & Deng, J. (2020). Maternal parenting mediate the relationship between maternal psychopathic traits and child callous-unemotional traits: A longitudinal multiple mediation model. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 29, 31423152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-020-01814-1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zumbach, J., Rademacher, A., & Koglin, U. (2021). Conceptualizing callous-unemotional traits in preschoolers: Associations with social-emotional competencies and aggressive behavior. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 15, Article 24. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-021-00376-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed