Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-vdxz6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T14:05:52.522Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Substance use in Portuguese and Spanish Adolescents: Highlights from Differences, Similarities and Moderating Effects

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 January 2013

Celeste Simões ,
Margarida Gaspar Matos ,
Carmen Moreno ,
Francisco Rivera ,
Joan M. Batista-Foguet  and
Bruce Simons-Morton
Celeste Simões*
Affiliation:
Universidade Técnica de Lisboa (Portugal)
Margarida Gaspar Matos
Affiliation:
Universidade Técnica de Lisboa (Portugal)
Carmen Moreno
Affiliation:
Universidade of Sevilla (Spain)
Francisco Rivera
Affiliation:
Universidad de Huelva (Spain)
Joan M. Batista-Foguet
Affiliation:
Universidad Ramon Llull (Spain)
Bruce Simons-Morton
Affiliation:
Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (USA)
*
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Celeste Simões. Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade Técnica de Lisboa. Estrada da Costa 1495-688. Cruz Quebrada (Portugal). Phone: +351-214149148. Fax: +351-214151248. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Many behaviors with lasting health impact are initiated in adolescence. Substance use is one such behavior. To analyse the factors involved in adolescent substance use among Portuguese and Spanish boys and girls, an explanatory model was developed using structural equations modelling. The model proposes that the impact of social contexts (family, friends, classmates and teachers) on substance use (tobacco, alcohol and illicit drugs) is mediated by perceptions of well-being (psychological symptoms, well-being and school satisfaction). Data on 1589 Portuguese (mean age = 13.27, SD =. 59) and 4191 Spanish adolescents (mean age= 13.21; SD =.47) who took part in the HBSC/WHO survey were analysed. The model fits the data of each country (CFI >.90; RMSEA < .03) and the majority of the relationships proposed in the model have been as expected for both samples. The relations with a major effect, for both countries, were: the negative effect of family on psychological symptoms and the positive effect of family on subjective well-being; the negative effect of classmates on psychological symptoms; the positive effect of teachers on school satisfaction; the effect of psychological symptoms (negative) and school satisfaction (positive) on well-being; the negative effect of school satisfaction on tobacco and alcohol use; and the positive effect of tobacco on alcohol use, and alcohol use on cannabis. For each of the dependent factors studied (tobacco, alcohol and illicit drugs), the levels of explained variance varied between 9% (for tobacco use) and 46% (for alcohol use). Some non-invariant paths were obtained in country comparisons, controlling for gender. In multivariate analyses the paths from tobacco use to cannabis and from alcohol to cannabis were significant, but much stronger for Spanish girls than Portuguese girls.

Muchos de los comportamientos que a largo plazo tendrán efectos en la salud se inician en la adolescencia, como es el caso del consumo de sustancias. Para analizar los factores que intervienen en el consumo de sustancias en chicos y chicas portugueses y españoles, se ha desarrollado un modelo explicativo utilizando modelos de ecuaciones estructurales. El modelo propone que el impacto de los contextos sociales (familia, amistades, compañeros de clase y profesorado) sobre el consumo de sustancias (tabaco, alcohol y drogas ilegales) se encuentra mediado por la percepción de bienestar (síntomas psicológicos, bienestar subjetivo y satisfacción con la escuela). Se analizaron los datos de 1589 adolescentes portugueses (edad media = 13.27; SD = .59) y 4191 adolescentes españoles (edad media = 13.21; SD = .47) que participaron en el estudio HBSC/OMS. El ajuste de los modelos a los datos de cada país (CFI > .90; RMSEA > .03) y la mayoría de las relaciones propuestas en el modelo han mostrado los resultados esperados en ambas muestras. Las relaciones con un mayor efecto para ambos países fueron las siguientes: el efecto negativo de la familia sobre los síntomas psicológicos y el efecto positivo de la familia en el bienestar subjetivo, el efecto negativo de sus compañeros de clase en los síntomas psicológicos, el efecto positivo del profesorado en la satisfacción escolar, el efecto de los síntomas psicológicos (relación negativa) y la satisfacción escolar (relación positiva) en el bienestar, el efecto negativo de la satisfacción con la escuela sobre el uso de tabaco y alcohol, la relación positiva del tabaco en el consumo de alcohol y el consumo de alcohol sobre el cannabis. Para cada uno de los factores dependientes estudiados (tabaco, alcohol y drogas ilegales) los niveles de varianza explicada oscilaron entre el 9% (para el consumo de tabaco) y el 46% (para el consumo de alcohol).Algunas relaciones se mostraron no invariantes en las comparaciones entre países, habiéndose controlando el género. En el análisis multivariado, las relaciones entre tabaco y alcohol sobre el cannabis fueron significativas en ambos países, siendo más intensas en las chicas españolas que en las chicas portuguesas.

Keywords

adolescentstobaccoalcoholcannabissocial contextsadolescentestabacoalcoholcannabiscontextos sociales
Type
Research Article
Information
The Spanish Journal of Psychology , Volume 15 , Issue 3 , November 2012 , pp. 1024 - 1037
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

ANQEP (2012). Jovens [Youth]. Governo de Portugal: Agência Nacional para a Qualificação e o Ensino Profissional. Retrieved from http://www.anqep.gov.pt/default.aspxtGoogle Scholar
Argyle, M. (1997). Is happiness a cause of health? Psychology and Health, 12, 769–781. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08870449708406738Google Scholar
Ariza Cardenal, C., & Nebot Adell, M. (2000). Factors associated with problematic alcohol consumption in schoolchildren. Journal of Adolescent Health, 27, 425–433. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1054-139X(99)00117-2Google Scholar
Baldi, S., Jin, Y., Skemer, M., Green, P. J., Herget, D., & Xie, H. (2007). Highlights from PISA 2006: Performance of U.S. 15-year-old students in science and mathematics literacy in an international context. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.Google Scholar
Batista-Foguet, J. M., Boyatzis, R., Guillen, L., & Serlavos, R. (2008). Assessing emotional intelligence competencies in two global contexts. In Emmerling, R., Shanwal, V., & Mandal, M. (Eds.), Emotional intelligence: Theoretical and cultural perspectives (pp.89–114). San Francisco, CA: Nova Science Publishers.Google Scholar
Batista-Foguet, J. M., Coenders, G., & Ferragud, M. A. (2001). Using structural equation models to evaluate the magnitude of measurement error in blood pressure. Statistics in Medicine, 20, 2351–2368. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sim.836Google Scholar
Batista-Foguet, J. M., Fortiana, J., Currie, C., & Villalbí, J. (2004). Different approaches in the construction of socioeconomical indexes: An aplied comparision using family affluence scale. Social Indicator Research Journal, 67, 315–332. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/B:SOCI.0000032341.14612.b8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beauvais, F., & Oetting, E. R. (1999). Drug use, resilience, and the myth of golden child. In Glantz, M. D. & Johnson, J. L. (Eds.), Resilience and development: Positive life adaptations (pp. 101–107). New York, NY: Klumer Academic/Plenum Publishers.Google Scholar
Benard, B. (1995). Fostering resilience in children. ERIC Digest. Retrieved from http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed386327.htmlGoogle Scholar
Bentler, P. M. (1995). EQS structural equations program manual. Encino, CA: Multivariate Software, Inc.Google Scholar
Billiet, J., Cambré, B., & Welkenhuysen-Gybels, J.(2002). Equivalence of measurement instruments for attitude variables in comparative surveys, taking methods effects into account: The case of ethnocentrism. In Ferligoj, A. & Mrvar, A. (Eds.), Developments in social science methodology (Vol. 18, pp. 53–72). Ljubljana, Slovenia: FDV.Google Scholar
Bonny, A. E., Britto, M. T., Klostermann, B. K., Hornung, R. W., & Slap, G. B. (2000). School disconnectedness: Identifying adolescents at risk. Pediatrics, 106, 1017–1021.http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.106.5.1017Google Scholar
Braconnier, A., & Marcelli, D. (2000). As mil faces daadolescência [The thousand faces of adolescence]. Lisboa, Portugal: CLIMEPSI Editores.Google Scholar
Carli, L. L. (1989). Gender differences in interaction style and influence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 56–576. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.56.4.565Google Scholar
Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2000). Testing measurement invariance using critical values of fit indices: A Monte Carlo study. Retrieved from http://division.aomonline.org/rm/cheung_files/cheung.htmGoogle Scholar
Cortes Tomas, M. T., Espejo Tort, B., Martin del Rio, B., & Gomez Iniguez, C. (2010). Different typologies of alcohol consumersin the practice of the “botellon” in three Spanish cities. Psicothema, 22, 363–368.Google Scholar
Currie, C., Gabhainn, S. N., Godeau, E., Roberts, C., Smith, R., Currie, D.,… Barnekow, V. (Eds.) (2008). Inequalities in young people's health: HBSC international report from the 2005/2006 survey. Copenhagen, Denmark: World Health Organization.Google Scholar
Currie, C., Roberts, C., Morgan, A., Smith, R., Settertobulte, W., Samdal, O., & Rasmussen, V. B. (eds.) (2004) Young people's health in context: International report from the HBSC 2001/02 survey. Copenhagen, Denmark: World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe.Google Scholar
Currie, C., Smith, R., Boyce, W., & Smith, R. (2001). HBSC, a WHO cross national study:Research protocol for the 2001/2002 survey. Copenhagen, Denmark: World Health Organization.Google Scholar
Davidson, A. J., Gest, S. D., & Welsh, J. A. (2010). Relatedness with teachers and peers during early adolescence:An integrated variable-oriented and person-oriented approach. Journal of School Psychology, 48, 483–510. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2010.08.002Google Scholar
Dorfman, D. H., Trokel, M., Lincoln, A. K., & Mehta, S. D. (2010). Increased prevalence of behavioral risks among adolescent and young adult women with psychological distress in the emergency department. Pediatric Emergency Care, 26, 93–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/PEC.0b013e3181cdb883Google Scholar
Gilvarry, E. (2000). Substance abuse in young people. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41, 55–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00549Google Scholar
Greeff, A. P., & le Roux, M. C. (1999). Parents' and adolescents' perceptions of a strong family. Psychological Reports, 84, 1219–1224. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1999.84.3c.1219Google Scholar
Griffin, K. W., Botvin, G. J., Scheier, L. M., Epstein, J. A., & Doyle, M. M. (2002). Personal competence skills, distress, and well-being as determinants of substance use in a predominantly minority urban adolescent sample. Prevention Science, 3, 23–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1014667209130Google Scholar
Grogan, S., Conner, M., Fry, G., Gough, B., & Higgins, A. (2009). Gender differences in smoking: A longitudinal study of beliefs predicting smoking in 11–15 year olds. Psychology & Health, 24, 301–316. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08870440701746586Google Scholar
Hibell, B., Guttormsson, U., Ahlström, S., Balakireva, O., Bjarnason, T., Kokkevi, A., & Kraus, L. (2009). The 2007 ESPAD report - Substance use among students in 35european countries. Stockholm, Sweden: The Swedish Council for Information on Alcohol and Other Drugs.Google Scholar
Hunt, K., Sweeting, H., Sargent, J., Lewars, H., Young, R., & West, P. (2011). Is there an association between seeing incidents of alcohol or drug use in films and young Scottish adults'own alcohol or drug use? A cross sectional study. BMC Public Health, 11, 259–269. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-11-259Google Scholar
Huver, R. M. E., Engels, R. C. M. E., Van Breukelen, G., & de Vries, H. (2007). Parenting style and adolescent smoking cognitions and behavior. Psychology & Health, 22, 575–593. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14768320600976182Google Scholar
Igra, V., & Irwin, C. E. Jr., (1996). Theories of adolescent risk-taking behavior. In DiClemente, R. J., Hansen, W. B., & Ponton, L. E. (Eds.), Handbook of Adolescent Health Risk Behavior (pp. 35–51). New York, NY: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
INE Instituto Nacional de Estatística (2006). A Península Ibérica em números 2006 / La Península Ibérica en cifras 2006 [The Iberian Peninsula in numbers 2006]. Madrid, Spain: Author.Google Scholar
INE Instituto Nacional de Estatística. (2009). A Península Ibérica em números 2009 / La Península Ibérica en cifras 2009 [The Iberian Peninsula in numbers 2009]. Madrid, Spain: Author.Google Scholar
Kandel, D. B. (1998). Persistent themes and new perspectives on adolescent substance use: A lifespan perspective. In Jessor, R. (Ed.), New perspectives on adolescent risk behavior (pp. 43–89). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kelly, A. B., Toumbourou, J. W., O'Flaherty, M., Patton, G. C., Homel, R., Connor, J. P., & Williams, J. (2011). Family relationship quality and early alcohol use: Evidence for gender-specific risk processes. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 72, 399–407.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lerner, R. M., & Galambos, N. L. (1998).Adolescent development: Challenges and opportunities for research, programs, and policies. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 413–446. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.413Google Scholar
Little, T. D. (1997). Mean and covariance structure (MACS) analyses of cross-cultural data: Practical and theoretical issues. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 32, 53–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr3201_3Google Scholar
Llorens, N., Barrio, G., Sanchez, A., & Suelves, J. M. (2011). Effects of socialization and family factors on adolescent excessive drinking in Spain. Prevention Science, 12, 150–161. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11121-010-0195-0Google Scholar
Mason, M. J. (2010). Mental health, school problems, and social networks: Modeling urban adolescent substance use. Journal of Primary Prevention, 31, 321–331. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10935-010-0227-3Google Scholar
Matos, M. G., Baptista, M. I., Simões, C., Gaspar, T., Sampaio, D., Diniz, J. A., … Sardinha, L. (2008). Portugal: From research to practice - Promoting positive health for adolescents in schools. In Social cohesion for mental well-being among adolescents. Copenhagen, Denmark: World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe.Google Scholar
Matos, M. G., Dadds, M. R., & Barret, P. M. (2006). Family-related school issues and the mental health of adolescents: Post hoc analyses of the portuguese national health behavior in school-aged children survey data. Journal of Family Studies, 12, 261–275. http://dx.doi.org/10.5172/jfs.327.12.2.261Google Scholar
Matos, M. G., Gaspar, T., Vitória, P. D., & Clemente, M. P. (2003). Adolescentes e o tabaco: Rapazes e raparigas [Adolescents and tobacco: Boys and girls]. Lisboa, Portugal: FMH/CPT/MS.Google Scholar
Matos, M. G., Simões, C., Batista-Foguet, J., & Cottraux, J. (2010). Personal and social factors associated with the perception of health and the perception of happiness in a nonclinical adolescent population. Encephale, 36, 39–45.Google Scholar
Matos, M. G., Simões, C., Tomé, G., Gaspar, T., Camacho, I., Diniz, J. A., & Equipa do Aventura Social (2006). A saúde dos adolescentes portugueses: Hoje em 8 anos [The health of Portuguese adolescents: Today at 8 years]. FMH/UTL/CMDT/IHMT/UNL. Retrieved from http://www.fmh.utl.pt/aventurasocial/pdf/Relatorio_nacional_2006.pdfGoogle Scholar
Mercken, L., Snijders, T. A., Steglich, C., Vertiainen, E., & de Vries, H. (2010). Smoking-based selection and influence in gender-segregated friendship networks: A social network analysis of adolescent smoking. Addiction, 105, 1280–1289. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.02930.xGoogle Scholar
Meredith, W. (1993). Measurement invariance, factor analysis and factorial invariance. Psychometrika, 58, 525–543. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02294825Google Scholar
Moreno, C., Muñoz-Tinoco, V., Pérez, P., Sánchez-Queija, I., Granado, M. C., Ramos, P., & Rivera, F. (2008). Desarrollo adolescente y salud. Resultados del estudio HBSC-2006 con chicos y chicas españoles de 11 a 17 años [Adolescent development and health. Results of Spanish HBSC study 2006 with boys and girls 11 to 17 years]. Madrid, Spain: Ministerio de Sanidad y Consumo.Google Scholar
Oldenburg, C. M., & Kems, K. A. (1997). Associations between peer relationships and depressive symptoms: Testing moderator effects of gender and age. Journal of Early Adolescence, 17, 319–337. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0272431697017003004Google Scholar
Pattussi, M. P., Moysés, S. M., Junges, J. R., & Sheiham, A. (2006). Capital social e a agenda de pesquisa em epidemiologia [Social capital and the research agenda in epidemiology]. Cadernos de Saúde Pública, 22, 1525–1546. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0102-311X2006000800002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Riala, K., Hakko, H., Isohanni, M., Jarvelin, M. R., & Rasanen, P. (2004). Teenage smoking and substance use as predictors of severe alcohol problems in late adolescence and in young adulthood. Journal of Adolescent Health, 35, 245–254. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1054-139X(03)00350-1Google Scholar
Roberts, C., Tynjälä, J., Currie, D., & King, M. (2004). Annex 1. Methods.Young people's health in context: Health Behavior in School-Aged Children (HBSC) study: International report from the 2001/2002 survey (pp. 217–227). Copenhagen, Denmark: World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe.Google Scholar
Rudolph, K. D., & Hammen, C. (1999). Age and gender asdeterminants of stress exposure, generation, and reactions in youngsters: A transactional perspective. Child Development, 70, 660–677. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00048Google Scholar
Rueger, S. Y., Malecki, C. K., & Demaray, M. K. (2010). Relationship between multiple sources of perceived social support and psychological and academic adjustment in early adolescence: Comparisons across gender. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39, 47–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10964-008-9368-6Google Scholar
Samdal, O. (1998). The school environment as a risk or resource for students' health-related behaviors and subjective well-being. Bergen, Norway: University of Bergen - Research Center for Health Promotion, Faculty of PsychologyGoogle Scholar
Samdal, O., & Dür, W. (2000). The school environment and the health of adolescents. In Currie, C., Hurrelmann, K., Settertobulte, W., Smith, C. A., & Todd, J. (Eds.), Health and health behavior among young people (pp. 49–64). Copenhagen, Denmark: World Health Organization.Google Scholar
Sánchez-García, M., & Batista-Foguet, J. M. (2008). Congruency of the cognitive and affective components of the attitude as a moderator on intention of condom use predictors. Social Indicators Research, 87, 139–155. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11205-007-9163-xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schaffer, D. R. (1994). Social & personality development (3rd Ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.Google Scholar
Sells, C. W., & Blum, R. W. (1996). Current trends in adolescent health. In DiClemente, R. J., Hansen, W. B., & Ponton, L. E. (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent health risk behavior (pp. 5–34). New York, NY: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Settertobulte, W. (2000). Family and peer relations. In Currie, C., Hurrelmann, K., Settertobulte, W., Smith, C. A., & Todd, J. (Eds.), Health and health behavior among young people (pp. 39–48). Copenhagen, Denmark: World Health Organization.Google Scholar
Simantov, E., Schoen, C., & Klein, J. D. (2000). Health-compromising behaviors: Why do adolescents smoke or drink? Identifying underlying risk and protective factors. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescence Medicine, 154, 1025–1033.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simões, C. (2007). Comportamentos de risco na adolescência [Risk behaviors in adolescence]. Lisboa, Portugal: FCT/FCG.Google Scholar
Simões, C., Batista-Foguet, J. M., Matos, M. G., & Calmeiro, L. (2008). Alcohol use and abuse in adolescence: Proposal of an alternative analysis. Child: Health, Care and Development, 34, 291–301. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2007.00808.xGoogle Scholar
Simons-Morton, B. G. (2007). Social influences on adolescent substance use. American Journal of Health Behavior, 31, 672–684. http://dx.doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.31.6.13Google Scholar
Simons-Morton, B. G., & Chen, R. (2009). Peer and parent influences on school engagement among early adolescents. Youth and Society, 41, 3–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0044118X09334861Google Scholar
Simons-Morton, B. G., Farhat, T., Ter Bogt, T. F., Hublet, A., Kuntsche, E., Nic Gabhainn, S., … HBSC Risk Behaviour Focus Group (2009). Gender specific trends in alcohol use: Cross-cultural comparisons from 1998 to 2006 in 24 countries and regions. International Journal of Public Health, 54, 199–208. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00038-009-5411-yGoogle Scholar
Skeer, M. R., McCormick, M. C., Normand, S. L., Mimiaga, M. J., Buka, S. L., & Gilman, S. E. (2011). Gender differences in the association between family conflict and adolescent substance use disorders. Journal of Adolescent Health, 49, 187–192. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.12.003Google Scholar
Spijkerman, R., Van den Eijnden, R. J. J. M., Overbeek, G., & Engels, R. C. M. E. (2007). The impact of peer and parental norms and behavior on adolescent drinking: The role of drinker prototypes. Psychology & Health, 22, 7–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14768320500537688Google Scholar
Sprinthall, N. A., & Collins, W. A. (1999). Psicologia do adolescente: Uma abordagem desenvolvimentalista [Adolescent psychology: A developmental approach] (2nd Ed.). Lisboa, Portugal: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian.Google Scholar
Stanton, B., Li, X., Pack, R., Cottrell, L., Harris, C., & Burns, J. M. (2002). Longitudinal influence of perceptions of peer and parental factors on African American adolescent risk involvement.Journal of Urban Health, 79, 536–548. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jurban/79.4.536Google Scholar
Steinberg, L. (2001). The role of family in adolescent development: Preventing risk, promoting resilience. CYFERnet. Retrieved from http://www1.cyfernet.org/conffav/05-01-Steinberg.htmlGoogle Scholar
Swaim, R. C., Bates, S. C., & Chavez, E. L. (1998). Structural equation socialization model of substance use among mexican-american and white non-hispanic school dropouts. Journal of Adolescent Health, 23, 128–138. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1054-139X(98)00068-8Google Scholar
Torsheim, T., & Wold, B. (2001). School-related stress, school support, and somatic complaints: A general population study. Journal of Adolescent Research, 16, 293–303. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0743558401163003Google Scholar
Toumbourou, J. W. (2001). Working with families to promote healthyadolescent development. Family Matters, 59, 54–60.Google Scholar
Vega, W. A., Chen, K. W., & Williams, J. (2007). Smoking, drugs, and other behavioral health problems among multiethnic adolescents in the NHSDA. Addictive Behaviors, 32, 1949–1956. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2006.12.022Google Scholar
Wenz-Gross, M., Siperstein, G. N., Untch, A. S., & Widaman, K. F. (1997). Stress, social support, and adjustment of adolescentsin middle school. Journal of Early Adolescence, 17, 129–151. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0272431697017002002Google Scholar
Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (2001). Journeys from childhood to midlife: Risk, resilience and recovery. New York, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Whalen, C. K., Jamner, L. D., Henker, B., & Delfino, R. J. (2001). Smoking and moods in adolescents with depressive and aggressive dispositions: Evidence from surveys and electronic diaries. Health Psychology, 20, 99–111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037//0278-6133.20.2.99Google Scholar