Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-ndw9j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-08T02:15:23.172Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Psychoticism and Disruptive Behavior can be also Good Predictors of School Achievement

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 June 2013

Carmen Flores-Mendoza ,
Keith Widaman ,
Marcela Mansur-Alves ,
Tatiane Dias Bacelar  and
Renata Saldanha
Carmen Flores-Mendoza*
Affiliation:
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (Brazil)
Keith Widaman
Affiliation:
University of California (US)
Marcela Mansur-Alves
Affiliation:
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (Brazil)
Tatiane Dias Bacelar
Affiliation:
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (Brazil)
Renata Saldanha
Affiliation:
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (Brazil)
*
*Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Carmen Flores-Mendoza. Department of Psychology, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais. Av. Antonio Carlos, 677, Pampulha/ Belo Horizonte (Brazil). CEP: 31270-901. Phone: +55(31)3409-6277. E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The relations of Gf (Standard Progressive Matrices Raven), Gc (verbal scale of Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Version), personality dimensions (Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Junior Version), and disruptive behavior (TDAH scale) with school achievement (measured by TDE test and PISA test) were investigated. Two samples of students (total N = 534) representing a broad range of socioeconomic status (SES) participated in this study. Path models were conducted. The results demonstrated that (1) in both samples no sex differences related to school achievement were found; (2) in the first sample, after controlling for age and SES differences, Gf and psychoticism predicted (.38 and −.13, respectively) school achievement (measured by TDE test); (3) in the second sample, after controlling for SES differences to which additional measures were administered, Gf and Gc positively predicted (.22 and .40, respectively) school achievement (measured by PISA test). In addition, psychoticism and disruptive behavior also predicted school performance (−.14 and −.28, respectively). Some theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Keywords

intelligencepsychoticismdisruptive behaviorschool achievementSES
Type
Research Article
Information
The Spanish Journal of Psychology , Volume 16 , 2013 , E13
Copyright
Copyright © Universidad Complutense de Madrid and Colegio Oficial de Psicólogos de Madrid 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ackerman, P. L., Chamorro-Premuzic, T., & Furnham, A. (2011). Trait complexes and academic achievement: Old and new ways of examining personality in educational contexts. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 27–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1348/000709910X522564 Google Scholar
Akiba, M., LeTrende, G. K., & Scribner, J. P. (2007). Teacher quality, opportunity gap, and national achievement in 46 countries. Educational Researcher, 36, 369–387. http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/0013189X07308739 Google Scholar
Aluja, A., & Blanch, A. (2002). The Children Depression Inventory as predictor of social and scholastic competence. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 18, 259–274. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027//1015-5759.18.3.259 Google Scholar
Aluja-Fabregat, A., & Blanch, A. (2004). Socialized personality, scholastic aptitudes, study habits, and academic achievement: Exploring the link. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 20, 157–165. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.20.3.157 Google Scholar
Aluja-Fabregat, A., & Torrubia-Beltri, R. (1998). Viewing of mass media violence, perception of violence, personality and academic achievement. Personality and Individual Differences, 25, 973–989. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00122-6 Google Scholar
Andrade, M., Franco, C., & Carvalho, J. P. (2003). Gênero e desempenho em matemática ao final do ensino médio: quais as relações? [Gender and mathematics achievement at the end of high school: What is the relationship?] Estudos em Avaliação Educacional, 27, 77–96.Google Scholar
Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. (1991). “The Big Five personality dimensions and job performance: A meta-analysis”. Personnel Psychology, 44, 1–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1991.tb00688.x Google Scholar
Barrick, M. R., Mount, M. K., & Judge, T. A. (2001). Personality and job performance at the beginning of the new millennium: What do we know and where do we go next? International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 9, 9–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-2389.00160 Google Scholar
Benczik, E. B. P. (2000). Manual da Escala de Transtorno do Déficit de Atenção e Hiperatividade: Versão para professores [Manual of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Scale for teachers]. São Paulo, Brazil: Casa do Psicólogo.Google Scholar
Bertrams, A., & Dickhäuser, O. (2009). High-school students’ need for cognition, self-control capacity, and school achievement: Testing a mediation hypothesis. Learning and Individual Differences, 19, 135–138. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2008.06.005 Google Scholar
Bettencourt, B. A., & Miller, N. (1996). Gender differences in aggression as a function of provocation: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 422–447. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.119.3.422 Google Scholar
Biver, F., Lotstra, F., Monclus, M., Wikler, D., Damhaut, P., Mendlewicz, J., & Goldman, S. (1996). Sex difference in 5HT2 receptor in the living human brain. Neuroscience Letters, 204, 25–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3940(96)12307-7 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Breslau, N., Breslau, J., Peterson, E., Miller, E., Lucia, V. C., Bohnert, K., & Nigg, J. (2010). Change in teachers’ ratings of attention problems and subsequent change in academic achievement: A prospective analysis. Psychological Medicine, 40, 159–166. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291709005960 Google Scholar
Byrne, B. M. (2010). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. New York, NY: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. 2nd ed.Google Scholar
Bub, K. L., McCartney, K., & Willett, J. B. (2007). Behavior problem trajectories and first-grade cognitive ability and achievement skills: A latent growth curve analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology. 99, 653–670. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.3.653 Google Scholar
Campbell, A. (2006). Sex differences in direct aggression: What are the psychological mediators? Aggression and Violent Behavior, 11, 237–264. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2005.09.002 Google Scholar
Caprara, G. V., Vecchione, M., Alessandri, G., Gerbino, M., & Barbaranelli, C. (2011). The contribution of personality traits and self-efficacy beliefs to academic achievement: A longitudinal study. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 78–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1348/2044-8279.002004 Google Scholar
Carlson, C. L., Tamm, Leanne, , M. A., & Gaub, M. (1997). Gender differences in children with ADHD, ODD, and co-occurring ADHD/ODD identified in a school population. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1706–1714. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199712000-00019 Google Scholar
CEPA (2001). Manual das Matrizes Progressivas de Raven [Manual of Standard Progressive Matrices of Raven]. (Translator: Campos, Francisco). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: CEPA.Google Scholar
Chamorro-Premuzic, T., & Furnham, A. (2003). Personality predicts academic performance: Evidence from two longitudinal university samples. Journal of Research in Personality, 37, 319–338. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0092-6566(02)00578-0 Google Scholar
Colom, R., & Flores-Mendoza, C. E. (2007). Intelligence predicts scholastic achievement irrespective of SES factors: Evidence from Brazil. Intelligence, 35, 243–251. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2006.07.008 Google Scholar
Colom, R., Escorial, S., Shih, P. Ch., & Privado, J. (2007). Fluid intelligence, memory span, and temperament difficulties predict academic performance of young adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 1503–1514. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2006.10.023 Google Scholar
Costa, P. T. Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.Google Scholar
Costa, P. T. Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (2008). Manual Profissional NEO PI-R. Adaptação brasileira pelo Laboratório de Avaliação das Diferenças Individuais. [Profissional Manual of NEO PI-R. Brazilian adaptation by the Laboratory of Individual Differences Assessment]. São Paulo, Brazil:Vetor Editora.Google Scholar
Costa, P. T. Jr., Terracciano, A, & McCrae, R. R. (2001). Gender differences in personality traits across cultures: Robust and surprising findings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 322–331. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.81.2.322 Google Scholar
De Fruyt, F., & Mervielde, I. (1996). Personality and interests as predictors of educational streaming and achievement. European Journal of Personality, 10, 405–425. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0984(199612)10:5<405::AID-PER255>3.0.CO;2-M Google Scholar
De Fruyt, F., Van Leeuwen, K., De Bolle, M., & De Clercq, B. (2008). Sex differences in school performance as a function of conscientiousness, imagination and the mediating role of problem behavior. European Journal of Personality, 22, 167–184. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/per.675 Google Scholar
Barry, DeShazo, , T. D., Lyman, R. D., & Klinger, L. G. (2002). Academic underachievement and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: The negative impact of symptom severity on school performance. Journal of School Psychology, 40, 259–283. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-4405(02)00100-0 Google Scholar
Di Fabio, A., & Busoni, L. (2007). Fluid intelligence, personality traits and scholastic success. Empirical evidence in a sample of Italian high school students. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 2095–2104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.06.025 Google Scholar
Dias, T. L., Enumo, S. R. F., & Turini, F. A. (2006). Avaliação do desempenho acadêmico de alunos do ensino fundamental em Vitória, Espírito Santo [Achievement performance assessment of elementary school students in Vitória, Espírito Santo, Brazil]. Estudos de Psicologia, 23, 382–390. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0103-166X2006000400006 Google Scholar
Duckworth, A. L., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2005). Self-discipline outdoes IQ in predicting academic performance of adolescents. Psychological Science, 16, 939–944. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01641.x Google Scholar
DuPaul, G. J., Volpe, R. J., Jitendra, A. K., Lutz, L. G., Lorah, K. S., & Gruber, R. (2004). Elementary school students with AD/HD: Predictors of academic achievement. Journal of School Psychology, 42, 285–301. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2004.05.001 Google Scholar
Eysenck, H. J. (1992). A reply to Costa and McCrae. P or A and C - the role of theory. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 867–868. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(92)90003-8 Google Scholar
Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, S. B. G. (1969). Personality structure and measurement. London, UK: Routledge and Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, S. B. G. (1975). Manual of the Eysenck personality questionnaire. London, UK: Hodder & Stoughton.Google Scholar
Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, S. B. G. (1991). Eysenck Personality Scales (EPS Adult). London, UK: Hodder & Stoughton.Google Scholar
Fanous, A., Gardner, C. O., Prescott, C. A., Cancro, R., & Kendler, K. S. (2002). Neuroticism, major depression and gender: A population-based twin study. Psychological Medicine, 32, 719–728. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S003329170200541X CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feingold, A. (1994) Gender differences in personality: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 429–456. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.116.3.429 Google Scholar
Fergusson, D. M., & Horwood, L. J. (1995). Early disruptive behavior, IQ, and later school achievement and delinquent behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 23, 183–199. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01447088 Google Scholar
Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., & Boden, J. M. (2008). The transmission of social inequality: Examination of the linkages between family socioeconomic status in childhood and educational achievement in young adulthood. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 26, 277–295. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rssm.2008.05.001 Google Scholar
Frazier, T. W., Youngstrom, E. A., Glutting, J. J., & Watkins, M. W. (2007). ADHD and Achievement: Meta-analysis of the child, adolescent, and adult literatures and a concomitant study with college students. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40, 49–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/00222194070400010401 Google Scholar
Freudenthaler, H. H., Spinath, B., & Neubauer, A. C. (2008). Predicting school achievement in boys and girls. European Journal of Personality, 22, 231–245. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/per.678 Google Scholar
Frick, P. J., Kamphaus, R. W., Lahey, B. B., Loeber, R., Christ, M. A. G., Hart, E. L., & Tannenbaum, L. E. (1991). Academic underachievement and the disruptive behavior disorders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 289–294. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.59.2.289 Google Scholar
Furnham, A., & Chamorro-Premuzic, T. (2006). Personality, intelligence and general knowledge. Learning and Individual Differences, 16, 79–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2005.07.002 Google Scholar
Furnham, A., & Monsen, J. (2009). Personality traits and intelligence predict academic school grades. Learning and Individual Differences, 19, 28–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2008.02.001 Google Scholar
Gershon, J. (2002). A meta-analytic review of gender differences in ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 5, 143–154. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/108705470200500302 Google Scholar
Gonçalves, M. H. C. de (2000). Relações entre a família, o gênero, o desempenho, a confiança e as stitudes em relação à matemática. [Relationship among family, gender, achievement, and attitudes regarding mathematics] (Unpublished doctoral dissertation) UNICAMP, Campinas, Brazil.Google Scholar
Halpern, D., Benbow, C., Geary, D. C., Gur, R., Hyde, J., & Gernsbacher, M. A. (2007). Sex, math and scientific achievement: Why do men dominate the fields of science, engineering and mathematics? Scientific American Mind, 18, 44–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/scientificamericanmind1207-44 Google Scholar
Heaven, P. C. L., Ciarrochi, J. R., & Vialle, W. (2007). Conscientiousness and Eysenckian psychoticism as predictors of school grades. A one-year longitudinal study. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 535–546. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2006.07.028 Google Scholar
Herrero, O., Ordoñez, F., Salas, A., & Colom, R. (2002). Adolescencia y comportamiento antisocial [Adolescent and antisocial behavior]. Psicothema, 14, 340–343.Google Scholar
Hettema, J. M., Prescott, C. A., & Kendler, K. S. (2004). Genetic and environmental sources of covariation between generalized anxiety disorder and neuroticism. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 1581–1587. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.161.9.1581 Google Scholar
Jensen, A. R. (1998). The G factor. London, UK: Praeger.Google Scholar
Johnson, W., McGue, M. K., & Iacono, W. G. (2009). School performance and genetic and environmental variance in antisocial behavior at the transition from adolescence to adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 45, 973–987. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0016225 Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S., Kuhn, J., & Prescott, C. A. (2004). The interrelationship of neuroticism, sex, and stressful life events in the prediction of episodes of major depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 631–636. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.161.4.631 Google Scholar
Laidra, K., Allik, J., Harro, M., Merenäkk, L., & Harro, J. (2006). Agreement among adolescents, parents, and teachers on adolescent personality. Assessment, 13, 187–196. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1073191106287125 Google Scholar
Laidra, K., Pullmann, H., & Allik, J. (2007). Personality and intelligence as predictor of academic achievement: A cross-sectional study from elementary to secondary school. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 441–451. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2006.08.001 Google Scholar
Leeson, P., Ciarrochi, J., &. Heaven, P. C. L. (2008). Cognitive ability, personality, and academic performance in adolescence. Personality and Individual Differences, 45, 630–635. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.07.006 Google Scholar
Loehlin, J. C. (2000). Group differences in intelligence. In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), Handbook of intelligence (pp. 176–198). Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511807947.010 Google Scholar
Lykken, D. (1995). The antisocial personalities. New York, NY: LEA.Google Scholar
Lynn, R., & Irwing, P. (2004). Sex differences on the progressive matrices: A meta-analysis. Intelligence, 32, 481–498. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2004.06.008 Google Scholar
Lynn, R., & Martin, T. (1997). Gender differences in extroversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism in 37 countries. Journal of Social Psychology, 137, 369–373. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00224549709595447 Google Scholar
Lynn, R., & Meisenberg, G. (2010). National IQs calculated and validated for 108 nations. Intelligence, 38, 353–360. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2010.04.007 Google Scholar
Lynn, R., & Mikk, J. (2009). National IQs predict educational attainment in math, reading and science across 56 nations. Intelligence, 37, 305–310. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2009.01.002 Google Scholar
Mansur-Alves, M. (2007). Diferenças individuais da dimensão de Neuroticismo em população escolar por meio dos testes BFQ-C e EPQ-J [Individual differences in neuroticism among school children assessed by BFQ-C and EPQ–J] . (Unpublished master’s thesis). Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil.Google Scholar
Manuzza, S., Klein, R. G. & Moulton, J. L. III. (2002). Young adult outcome of children with “situational” hyperactivity: A prospective, controlled follow-up study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 191–198. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1014761401202 Google Scholar
Moravia, C. B., Rozenberg, M. P., Schlottfeldt, C. G., & Flores-Mendoza, C. (2008, October). Diferenças de habilidades cognitivas e desempenho escolar entre jovens concursados e não-concursados do ensino médio [Cognitive abilities differences and school achievement of selected and non-selected high school pupils] . Poster session presented at XXXVIII Reunião Anual da Sociedade Brasileira de Psicologia. Uberlândia, Brasil.Google Scholar
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998-2010). Mplus user’s guide. (6 th Ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén Google Scholar
Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard, T. J., Boykin, A.W., Brody, N., Ceci, S.J. ... Urbina, S. (1996). Intelligence: Knows and unknowns. American Psychologist, 51, 77–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.51.2.77 Google Scholar
O’Connor, M. C., & Paunonen, S. V. (2007). Big Five personality predictors of post-secondary academic performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 971–990. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2007.03.017 Google Scholar
Oliver, P. H., Guerin, D. W., & Gottfried, A. W. (2007). Temperamental task orientation: Relation to high school and college educational accomplishments. Learning and Individual Differences, 17, 220–230. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2007.05.004 Google Scholar
Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development-OECD (2007). PISA 2006. Science competencies for tomorrow’s World. V. 1.: Analysis. Paris, France: OECD.Google Scholar
Perry, L. B., & McConney, A. (2010). Does the SES of the school matter? An examination of socioeconomic status and student achievement using PISA 2003. Teachers College Record, 112, 1137–1162.Google Scholar
Petrides, K. V., Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Frederickson, N., & Furnham, A. (2005). Explaining individual differences in scholastic behavior and achievement. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 239–255. http://dx.doi.org/10.1348/000709904X24735 Google Scholar
Poropat, A. E. (2009). A meta-analysis of the five-factor model of personality and academic performance. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 322–338. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0014996 Google Scholar
Poropat, A. E. (2011). The Eysenckian personality factors and their correlations with academic performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 41–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1348/000709910X497671 Google Scholar
Rabiner, D., & Coie, J. D. (2000). Early attention problems and children’s reading achievement: A longitudinal investigation. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 859–867. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200007000-00014 Google Scholar
Rosander, P., Bäckström, M., & Stenberg, G. (2011). Personality traits and general intelligence as predictors of academic performance: A structural equation modeling approach. Learning and Individual Differences, 21, 590–596. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2011.04.004 Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., & Evans, D. E. (2000). Temperament and personality: Origins and outcomes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 122–135. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.78.1.122 Google Scholar
Sackett, P. R., Kuncel, N. R., Arneson, J. J., Cooper, S. R., & Waters, S. D. (2009). Does socioeconomic status explain the relationship between admissions tests and post-secondary academic performance? Psychological Bulletin, 135, 1–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0013978 Google Scholar
Saggino, A. (2000). The Big Three of the Big Five? A replication study. Personality and Individual Differences, 28, 879–886. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00146-4 Google Scholar
Saklofske, D. (1977). Anti social behavior and psychoticism in adolescent school boys. Psychological Reports, 41, 425–426. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1977.41.2.425 Google Scholar
Schmidt, L. A., & Fox, N. A. (1995). Individual differences in young adults’ shyness and sociability: Personality and health correlates. Personality and Individual Differences, 19, 455–462. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(95)00083-I Google Scholar
Sirin, S. R. (2005). Socioeconomic status and academic achievement: A meta-analytic review of research. Review of Educational Research, 75, 417–453. http://dx.doi.org/10.3102/00346543075003417 Google Scholar
Spinath, B., Freudenthaler, H. H., & Neubauer, A. C. (2010). Domain-specific school achievement in boys and girls as predicted by intelligence, personality and motivation. Personality and Individual Differences, 48, 481–486. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.11.028 Google Scholar
Stein, L. M. (1994). TDE: Teste de Desempenho Escolar. Manual para aplicação e interpretação [TDE: School Achievement Test. Manual for administration and interpretation] . São Paulo, Brazil: Casa do Psicólogo.Google Scholar
Strenze, T. (2007). Intelligence and socioeconomic success: A meta-analytic review of longitudinal research. Intelligence, 35, 401–426. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2006.09.004 Google Scholar
Trzesniewski, K. H., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Taylor, A., & Maughan, B. (2006). Revisiting the association between reading achievement and antisocial behavior: New evidence of an environmental explanation from a twin study. Child Development, 77, 72–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00857.x Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (2002). WISC III: Escala de Inteligência para Crianças: Manual. (3 a Ed.) [Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – 3 rd Ed.]. São Paulo, Brazil: Casa do Psicólogo.Google Scholar
White, J. D. (1999). Personality, temperament and ADHD a review of the Literature. Personality and Individual Differences, 27, 589–598. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00273-6 Google Scholar
Williams, P. G., & Wiebe, D. J. (2000). Individual differences in self-assessed health: Gender, neuroticism and physical symptom reports. Personality and Individual Differences, 28, 823–835. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00140-3 Google Scholar
Wittmann, W. W. (2005). Group differences in intelligence and related measures. In Wilhelm, O. & Engle, R. W. (Eds.), Handbook of understanding and measuring intelligence (pp 223–240). California, CA: Sage Publications. http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781452233529.n13 Google Scholar
Wolfe, R., & Johnson, S. (1995). Personality as a predictor of college performance. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 55, 177–185. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0013164495055002002 Google Scholar
Woods, S., & Wolke, D. (2004). Direct and relational bullying among primary school children and academic achievement. Journal of School Psychology, 42, 135–155. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2003.12.002 Google Scholar