Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dzt6s Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T19:30:02.419Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Growing Up in a Steel Town: Early-Life Pollution Exposure and Later-Life Mortality

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 January 2020

Sarah Taylor
Sarah Taylor*
Affiliation:
Department of Economics, Alma College
*
Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

An important hypothesis about the disease burden of air pollution is that high levels of exposure in childhood can result in a lifetime of health problems, leading to increased mortality rates at older ages. I evaluate this hypothesis using a proprietary data set—Medicare records matched to Social Security records that identify birthplace. I analyze old-age mortality among 390,000 individuals born in small cities and towns in Pennsylvania during the years 1916 through 1927. Some of these individuals were born in places with steel production, and thus likely had exposure to high levels of air pollution in childhood. These individuals have significantly higher rates of mortality post–age 65 than those born in comparable towns that did not have steel production facilities. There are three notable features of the excess mortality among those born in steel towns: (1) the relationship holds for comparisons within counties, (2) the excess mortality is higher in towns that had relatively higher levels of steel production, and (3) old-age mortality is especially high for individuals born in locations with relatively high levels of steel production and relatively low elevation—a finding consistent with the possibility that low-elevation locations were subject to atmospheric inversions that trapped air pollution. By matching the SSA/Medicare data with death certificate data, I am able to establish that the excess mortality associated with childhood exposure to air pollution is due primarily to elevated levels of cancer.

Type
Research Article
Information
Social Science History , Volume 44 , Issue 1 , Spring 2020 , pp. 117 - 142
Copyright
© Social Science History Association, 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Al-Ahmadi, Khalid, and Al-Zahrani, Ali (2013) “NO2 and cancer incidence in Saudi Arabia.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (11): 5844–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Almond, Douglas (2006) “Is the 1918 influenza pandemic over? Long-term effects of in utero influenza exposure in the post-1940 population.” Journal of Political Economy (4): 672–712.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Almond, Douglas, Edlund, Lena, and Palme, Marten (2009) “Chernobyl’s subclinical legacy: Prenatal exposure to radioactive fallout and school outcomes in Sweden.” Quarterly Journal of Economics (4): 1729–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
American Iron and Steel Institute (1930) Directory of the Iron and Steel Works of the United States and Canada, 21st ed. Baltimore: The Lord Baltimore Press.Google Scholar
American Iron and Steel Institute (1954) Directory of the Iron and Steel Works of the United States and Canada, 21st ed. Baltimore: The Lord Baltimore Press.Google Scholar
Anderson, Michael L. (2015) “As the wind blows: The effects of long-term exposure to air pollution on mortality.” NBER Working Paper No. w21578.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armstrong, Ben, Hutchinson, Emma, Unwin, John, and Fletcher, Tony (2004) “Lung cancer risk after exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: A review and meta-analysis.” Environmental Health Perspectives 112 (9): 970–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barker, D. J. P. (1995) “Fetal origins of coronary heart disease.” British Medical Journal (6998): 171–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Billings, Paul (2011) “Emissions of hazardous air pollutions from coal-fired power plants.” Environmental Health and Engineering, EH&E Report 17505.Google Scholar
Black, Dan, Sanders, Seth, Taylor, Evan, and Taylor, Lowell (2015) “The impact of the Great Migration on mortality of African Americans: Evidence from the Deep South.” American Economic Review (2): 477–503.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Calderon-Garciduenas, Lilian, Azzarelli, Biagio, Acuna, Hilda, Garcia, Raquel, Gam-bling, Todd M., Osnaya, Norma, Monroy, Sylvia, Rosario DEL Tizapantzi, Maria, Carson, Johnny L, Villarreal-Calderon, Anna, and Rewcastle, Barry (2002) “Air pollution and brain damage.” Toxicologic Pathology (3): 373–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Case, Anne, Fertig, Angela, and Paxson, Christina (2005) “The lasting impact of childhood health and circumstance.” Journal of Health Economics (2): 365–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Case, Anne, Lubotsky, Darren, and Paxson, Christina (2002) “Economic status and health in childhood: The origins of the gradient.” American Economic Review (5): 1308–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chay, Kenneth, Dobkin, Carlos, and Greenstone, Michael (2003) “The Clean Air Act of 1970 and adult mortality.” Journal of Risk and Uncertainty (3): 279–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clancy, Luke, Goodman, Pat, Sinclair, Hamish, and Dockery, Douglas W. (2002) “Effect of air-pollution control on death rates in Dublin, Ireland: An intervention study.” The Lancet (9341): 1210–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cordier, S., Monfort, C., Filippini, G., Preston-Martin, S., Lubin, F., Mueller, B. A., Holly, E. A., Peris-Bonet, R., McCredie, M., Choi, W., Little, J., and Arslan, A. (2004) “Parental exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and the risk of childhood brain tumors: The SEARCH international childhood brain tumor study.” American Journal of Epidemiology (12): 1109–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Currie, Janet, and Walker, Reed (2011) “Traffic congestion and infant health: Evidence from E-ZPass.” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics (1): 65–90.Google Scholar
Curtis, Luke, Rea, William, Smith-Willis, Patricia, Fenyves, Ervin, and Pan, Yaqin (2006) “Adverse health effects of outdoor air pollutants.” Environment International (6): 815–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cutler, David, Deaton, Angus, and Lleras-Muney, Adriana (2006) “The determinants of mortality.” Journal of Economic Perspectives (3): 97–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cutler, David, and Lleras-Muney, Adriana (2010) “Understanding differences in health behaviors by education.” Journal of Health Economics (1): 1–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, Devra (2002) When Smoke Ran Like Water. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
de Beer, Jeroen, Worrell, Ernst, and Blok, Kornelis (1998) “Future technologies for energy-efficient iron and steel making.” Annual Review of Energy and the Environment (23): 123–205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deutsch-Wenzel, Reintraud P., Brune, Horst, Grimmer, Gernot, Dettbarn, Gerhard, and Misfeld, Jr-gen (1983) “Experimental studies in rat lungs on the carcinogenicity and dose-response relationships of eight frequently occurring environmental polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.” Journal of the National Cancer Institute (3): 539–44.Google Scholar
DiFrancesco, C. A., Kelly, T. D., Bleiwas, D. I., and Fenton, M. D. (2010) “Iron and steel statistics.” Washington, DC: US Geological Survey.Google Scholar
Dockery, Douglas W., Pope, C. Arden, Xu, Xiping, Spengler, John D., Ware, James H., Fay, Martha E., Ferris, Benjamin G., Jr., and Speizer, Frank E. (1993) “An association between air pollution and mortality in six US cities.” The New England Journal of Medicine (24): 1753–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dominici, Francesca, Greenstone, Michael, and Sunstein, Cass R. (2014) “Particulate matter matters.” Science (6181): 257–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Durand, Michael, Florkowski, Chris, George, Peter, Walmsley, Trevor, Weinstein, Phil, and Cole, Jim (2004) “Elevated trace element output in urine following acute volcanic gas exposure.” Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research (1–2): 139–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elo, Irma T., and Preston, Samuel H. (1996) “Educational differentials in mortality: United States, 1979–1985.” Social Science & Medicine (1): 47–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Environmental Protection Agency (1995) “Profile of the iron and steel industry.” EPA Office of Compliance, EPA/310-R-95-005.Google Scholar
Fierro, M. (2000) “Particulate matter.” Air Info Now: 1–11. Pima County Arizona Government.Google Scholar
Fogel, Robert (2004) The Escape from Hunger and Premature Death, 1700–2100. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friedman, Debra L., Whitton, John, Leisenring, Wendy, Mertens, Ann C., Hammond, Sue, Stovall, Marilyn, Donaldson, Sarah S., Meadows, Anna T., Robison, Leslie L., and Neglia, Joseph P. (2010) “Subsequent neoplasms in 5-year survivors of childhood cancer: The childhood cancer survivor study.” Journal of the National Cancer Institute (14): 1083–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gauderman, W. James, Avol, Edward, Gilliland, Frank, Vora, Hita, Thomas, Duncan, Berhane, Kiros, McConnell, Rob, Kuenzli, Nino, Lurmann, Fred, Rappaport, Edward, Margolis, Helene, Bates, David, and Peters, John (2004) “The effect of air pollution on lung development for 10 to 18 years of age.” New England Journal of Medicine (1): 1057–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gauderman, W. James, Vora, Hita, McConnell, Rob, Berhane, Kiros, Gilliland, Frank, Thomas, Duncan, Lurmann, Fred, Avol, Edward, Kunzli, Nino, Jerrett, Michael, and Peters, John (2007) “Effects of exposure to traffic on lung development from 10 to 18 years of age: A cohort study.” The Lancet (9561): 571–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geographical Analysis Tools (2012) www.veloroutes.org (accessed May 2012).Google Scholar
Grossman, Michael (1972) “On the concept of health capital and the demand for health.” The Journal of Political Economy (2): 223–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Halliday, Timothy, and Kimmitt, Michael (2008) “Selective migration and health in the USA, 1984–93.” Population Studies (3): 321–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayward, Mark D., and Gorman, Bridget K. (2004) “The long arm of childhood: The influence of early-life social conditions on men’s mortality.” Demography (1): 87–107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hung, Li-Ju, Chan, Te-Fu, Wu, Chen-Hsuan, Chiu, Hui-Fen, and Yang, Chun-Yuh (2012) “Traffic air pollution and risk of death from ovarian cancer in Taiwan: Fine particulate matter (PM2. 5) as a proxy marker.” Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health (3): 174–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iwai, Kazuro, Mizuno, Shoichi, Miyasaka, Yoji, and Mori, Toru (2005) “Correlation between suspended particles in the environmental air and causes of disease among inhabitants: Cross-sectional studies using the vital statistics and air pollution data in Japan.” Environmental Research (1): 106–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kampa, Marilena, and Castanas, Elias (2008) “Human health effects of air pollution.” Environmental Pollution (2): 362–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kang, Daehee, Rothman, Nathaniel, Cho, Soo-Hun, Lim, Hyun Sul, Kwon, Ho-Jang, Kim, Sun-Min, Schwartz, Brian, and Strickland, Paul T. (1995) “Association of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (estimated from job category) with concentration of 1-hydroxypyrene glucuronide in urine from workers at a steel plant.” Occupational and Environmental Medicine (9): 593–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liu, Chia-Chia, Chen, Chih-Cheng, Wu, Trong-Neng, and Yang, Chun-Yuh (2008) “Association of brain cancer with residential exposure to petrochemical air pollution in Taiwan.” Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health (5): 310–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maccini, Sharon, and Yang, Dean (2009) “Under the weather: Health, schooling, and economic consequences of early-life rainfall.” American Economic Review (3): 1006–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Okona-Mensah, K. B., Battershill, J., Boobis, A., and Fielder, R. (2005) “An approach to investigating the importance of high potency polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the induction of lung cancer by air pollution.” Food and Chemical Toxicology (7): 1103–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pope, C. A. (1989) “Respiratory disease associated with community air pollution and a steel mill, Utah Valley.” American Journal of Public Health (5): 623–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pope, C. A. III, R. T., Burnett, M. J., Thun, E. E., Calle, D., Krewski, K., Ito, and G. D., Thurston (2002). Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality, and long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution. Jama, 287(9), 1132–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pope, C. A., and Dockery, D. W. (2006) “Health effects of fine particulate air pollution: Lines that connect.” Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association (56): 709–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pope, C. A., Schwartz, J., and Ransom, M. R. (1992) “Daily mortality and PM10 pollution in Utah Valley.” Archives of Environmental Health: An International Journal (3): 211–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pope, C. A., Thun, M. J., Namboodiri, M. M., Dockery, D. W., Evans, J. S., Speizer, F. E., and Heath, C. W., Jr. (1995) “Particulate air pollution as a predictor of mortality in a prospective study of US adults.” American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine (3): 669–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Preston, Samuel H. (2007) “The changing relation between mortality and level of economic development.” International Journal of Epidemiology (3): 484–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Preston, Samuel H., and Elo, Irma T. (1995) “Are educational differentials in adult mortality increasing in the United States?” Journal of Aging and Health (4): 476–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raaschou-Nielsen, Ole, Andersen, Zorana Jovanovic, Hvidberg, Martin, Jensen, Steen Solvang, Ketzel, Matthias, Sorensen, Mette, Loft, Steffen, Overvad, Kim, and Tjonneland, Anne (2011) “Lung cancer incidence and long-term exposure to air pollution from traffic.” Environmental Health Perspectives (6): 860–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Radian Corporation (1989) “Health hazard assessment summary: Steel mill emissions.” United States Environmental Protection Agency, Report 450/3-90-026.Google Scholar
Reynolds, Peggy, Von Behren, Julie, Gunier, Robert B., Goldberg, Debbie E., Hertz, Andrew, and Smith, Daniel F. (2003) “Childhood cancer incidence rates and hazardous air pollutants in California: An exploratory analysis.” Environmental Health Perspectives (4): 663–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rich, David Q., Kipen, Howard M., Huang, Wei, Wang, Guangfa, Wang, Yuedan, Zhu, Ping, Ohman-Strickland, Pamela, Hu, Min, Philipp, Claire, Diehl, Scott R., Lu, Shou-En, Tong, Jian, Gong, Jicheng, Thomas, Duncan, Zhu, Tong, and Zhang, Junfeng (Jim) (2012) “Association between changes in air pollution levels during the Beijing Olympics and biomarkers of inflammation and thrombosis in healthy young adults.” Journal of the American Medical Association (19): 2068–78.Google Scholar
Savitz, David A., and Feingold, Lisa (1989) “Association of childhood cancer with residential traffic density.” Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment, and Health (15): 360–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schueneman, Jean, High, M. D., and Bye, W. E. (1963) “Air pollution aspects of the iron and steel industry.” Washington, DC: US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Division of Air Pollution.Google Scholar
Secretary of Internal Affairs of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (1903) “Annual report part III: Industrial statistics.” Philadelphia: Wm. Stanley Ray, State Printer of Pennsylvania.Google Scholar
Somers, Christopher M., McCarry, Brian E., Malek, Farideh, and Quinn, James S. (2004) “Reduction of particulate air pollution lowers the risk of heritable mutations in mice.” Science (5673): 1008–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sullivan, Daniel, and von Wachter, Till (2009) “Job displacement and mortality: An analysis using administrative data.” Quarterly Journal of Economics (3): 1265–1306.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thurston, G. D., Burnett, R. T., Turner, M. C., Shi, Y., Krewski, D., Lall, R., Ito, K., Jerrett, M., Gapstur, S. M., Diver, W. R., and Pope, C. A., III (2016) “Ischemic heart disease mortality and long-term exposure to source-related components of US fine particle air pollution.” Environmental Health Perspectives (6): 785.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vaupel, James W. (1997) Between Zeus and the Salmon: The Biodemography of Longevity. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.Google Scholar
Vaupel, James W., Manton, Kenneth G., and Stallard, Eric (1979) “The impact of heterogeneity in individual frailty on the dynamics of mortality.” Demography (3): 439–54.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vaupel, James W., and Yashin, Anatoli I. (1985) “Heterogeneity’s ruses: Some surprising effects of selection on population dynamics.” The American Statistician (3): 176–85.Google Scholar
Warren, Kenneth (1973) The American Steel Industry 1850–1970: A Geographical Interpretation. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Warren, Kenneth (2001) Wealth, Waste, and Alienation: Growth and Decline in the Connellsville Coke Industry. Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wellenius, G. A., and Coull, B. A. (2003) “Inhalation of concentrated ambient air particles exacerbates myocardial ischemia in conscious dogs.” Environmental Health Perspectives (4): 402–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winkelstein, W. Jr., and Kantor, Seymour (1969) “Prostatic cancer: Relationship to suspended particulate air pollution.” American Journal of Public Health and the Nations Health (7): 1134–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yang, Hsi-Hsien, Lai, Soon-Onn, Hsieh, Lien-Te, Hsueh, Hung-Junt, and Chi, Tze-Wen (2002) “Profiles of PAH emission from steel and iron industries.” Chemosphere (10): 1061–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar