Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-l7hp2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T22:31:31.591Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Cooperation, Coordination, and Control: The Emergence and Decline of Centralized Finance in American Charity

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 June 2018

Maoz Brown
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The notion that government funding undermines the independence of nonprofit organizations is a prevalent theme in scholarship on state–nonprofit relations, social welfare policy, and the condition of American civil society. This article scrutinizes historical assumptions about community organizations that inform debates over the influence of government funding in the nonprofit sector. Drawing on long-standing organizational theory and a historical analysis of the Community Chest movement, this article highlights the tension between collaboration and independence inherent in the nonprofit organizational form as well as the implications of this tension in light of historical changes in the resource environment of voluntary human service agencies. This conceptual and temporal focus leads not only to an analytical reorientation but also to a historical revision: The influx of government funding in the American nonprofit sector in the 1960s promoted nonprofit independence by undermining the authority of local community institutions. In addition to complicating popular beliefs about charity in American civic culture, this article facilitates a more sophisticated understanding of community dynamics.

Type
Research Article
Information
Social Science History , Volume 42 , Issue 3 , Fall 2018 , pp. 543 - 573
Copyright
© Social Science History Association, 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

I wish to thank the anonymous reviewers for their helpful feedback on this article. I also thank Elisabeth Clemens, Evan Schofer, Jeremy Levine, Peter Frumkin, Woody Powell, and the participants of the 2017 Rockefeller Foundation Junior Scholars Forum and 2015 Penn Summer Doctoral Fellows Program for input on drafts of this manuscript.

References

Akana, Paul (1979) “Thoughts on allocations,” in Elmer Tropman (ed.) Some Thoughts on United Way: Selected Writings of the Late Paul Akana. Alexandria, VA: United Way of America: 43–54.Google Scholar
Alexander, Jeffrey C. (1987) “The social requisites for altruism and voluntarism: Some notes on what makes a sector independent.” Sociological Theory 5 (2): 165–171.Google Scholar
Alexander, Jennifer, Nank, Renee, and Stivers, Camilla (1999) “Implications of welfare reform: Do nonprofit survival strategies threaten civil society?” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 28 (4): 452–475.Google Scholar
Allard, Scott W. (2009) Out of Reach: Place, Poverty, and the New American Welfare State. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Almy, Frederic (1912) “Public pensions to widows,” in Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction. Fort Wayne, IN: Fort Wayne Printing Company: 481–85.Google Scholar
American Association for Organizing Charity (1917) Financial Federations: The Report of a Special Committee. New York: American Association for Organizing Charity.Google Scholar
Anheier, Helmut K. (2009) “What kind of nonprofit sector, what kind of society? Comparative Policy Reflections.” American Behavioral Scientist 52 (7): 1082–1094.Google Scholar
Arena, John (2012) Driven from New Orleans: How Nonprofits Betray Public Housing and Promote Privatization. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Association of Community Chests and Councils (1931) Budgets in a Community Chest. New York: Association of Community Chests and Councils.Google Scholar
Atwater, Pierce (1940) Problems of Administration in Social Work. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Barman, Emily (2006) Contesting Communities: The Transformation of Workplace Charity. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Barman, Emily (2013) “Classificatory struggles in the nonprofit sector: The formation of the National Taxonomy of Exempt Entities, 1969–1987.” Social Science History 37 (1): 103–141.Google Scholar
“Basic Principles in Chest Budget-Making: Report of a Referendum” (1940) Community 15 (8): 127–131.Google Scholar
Baum, Joel A. C. (1999) “The rise of chain nursing homes in Ontario, 1971–1996.” Social Forces 78 (2): 543–584.Google Scholar
Binder, Amy (2007) “For love and money: Organizations’ creative responses to multiple environmental logics.” Theory and Society 36 (6): 547–571.Google Scholar
Boris, Elizabeth T., de Leon, Erwin, Roeger, Katie L., and Nikolova, Milena (2010) Human Service Nonprofits and Government Collaboration: Findings from the 2010 National Survey of Nonprofit Government Contracting and Grants. Washington, DC: Urban Institute.Google Scholar
Brainard, Lori A., and Siplon, Patricia D. (2004) “Toward nonprofit organization reform in the voluntary spirit: Lessons from the internet.” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 33 (3): 435–457.Google Scholar
Brilliant, Eleanor L. (1986) “Community planning and community problem solving: Past, present, and future.” Social Service Review 60 (4): 568–589.Google Scholar
Brilliant, Eleanor L. (1990) The United Way: Dilemmas of Organized Charity. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Brint, Steven (2001) “Gemeinschaft revisited: A critique and reconstruction of the community concept.” Sociological Theory 19 (1): 1–23.Google Scholar
Bromley, Patricia, and Meyer, John W. (2017) “‘They are all organizations’: The cultural roots of blurring between the nonprofit, business, and government sectors.” Administration and Society 49 (7): 939–966.Google Scholar
Buell, Bradley (1935) “Content in community planning,” in Some Problems in Community Planning for Social Work, Bulletin 79. New York: Community Chests and Councils: 1–5.Google Scholar
Bush, Richard (1992) “Survival of the nonprofit spirit in a for-profit world.” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 21 (4): 391–410.Google Scholar
Central Planning Board of the Council of Social Agencies of Elizabeth, Linden, Hillside, Roselle, and Roselle Park (1938) An Interim Report (as of April 1st, 1938) of the Six Town Plan for a Community-Wide Attack on Social Ills in Elizabeth, Linden, Hillside, Roselle, Roselle Park and Union, N.J.Google Scholar
Chamber of Commerce of the United States (1922) Social Agencies and the Community. Washington, DC: Chamber of Commerce of the United States.Google Scholar
Child Welfare League of America (1981) Sources of Voluntary Agency Income, 1979–1980. New York: Child Welfare League of America.Google Scholar
Clemens, Elisabeth S. (2010) “From city club to nation state: Business networks in American political development.” Theory and Society 39 (3): 377–396.Google Scholar
Clemens, Elisabeth S. (2015) “Organizing powers in eventful times.” Social Science History 39 (1): 1–24.Google Scholar
Collins, Patricia H. (2010) “The new politics of community.” American Sociological Review 75 (1): 7–30.Google Scholar
Community Chests and Councils (1938) Questions and Answers about Community Chests and Councils. New York: Community Chests and Councils.Google Scholar
Community Chests and Councils (1942) Budgets in a Community Chest. New York: Community Chests and Councils.Google Scholar
Community Fund of Chicago (1965a) Report to the Board of Directors by the Budget Committee, October 14, 1965. Box 6, folder 1, United Way of Metropolitan Chicago records, Richard J. Daley Library, University of Illinois, Chicago.Google Scholar
Community Fund of Chicago (1965b) Report to the Board of Directors by the Budget Committee, December 9, 1965. Box 6, folder 1, United Way of Metropolitan Chicago records, Richard J. Daley Library, University of Illinois, Chicago.Google Scholar
Community Fund of Chicago (1969) 1969 Annual Report. Chicago: Community Fund of Chicago.Google Scholar
Crosby, Barbara C., Stone, Melissa M., and Bryson, John M. (2015) “Governance in an era of partnerships,” in James L. Perry and Robert K. Christensen (eds.) Handbook of Public Administration, 3rd ed. San Francisco: Wiley: 38–54.Google Scholar
Crozier, Alfred O. (1897) “Report of the committee on organization of charity,” in Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction. Boston: Ellis: 140–43.Google Scholar
Department of Health and Human Services (1991) Services Integration: A Twenty Year Retrospective. Washington, DC: Office of the Inspector General.Google Scholar
DiMaggio, Paul (2001) “Introduction: Making sense of the contemporary firm and prefiguring its future,” in Paul DiMaggio (ed.) The Twenty-First-Century Firm: Changing Economic Organization in International Perspective. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press: 3–30.Google Scholar
Doherty, Bob, Haugh, Helen, and Lyon, Fergus (2014) “Social enterprises as hybrid organizations: A review and research agenda.” International Journal of Management Reviews 16 (4): 417–436.Google Scholar
Dripps, Robert D. (1915) “The policy of state aid to private charities,” in Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction. Chicago: Hildmann: 458–73.Google Scholar
Dunham, Arthur (1958) Community Welfare Organization: Principles and Practice. New York: Cromwell.Google Scholar
Edlund, Roscoe C. (1919) “The social service of a federation,” in Proceedings of the National Conference of Social Work. Chicago: Rogers and Hall: 717–24.Google Scholar
Edwards, Bob, and Foley, Michael W. (1998) “Civil society and social capital beyond Putnam.” American Behavioral Scientist 42 (1): 124–139.Google Scholar
Eikenberry, Angela M. (2009) “Refusing the market: A democratic discourse for voluntary and nonprofit organizations.” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 38 (4): 582–596.Google Scholar
Eikenberry, Angela M., and Kluver, Jodie D. (2004) “The marketization of the nonprofit sector: Civil society at risk?” Public Administration Review 64 (2): 132–140.Google Scholar
Family Service Association of America (1965–79) Yearly Report Questionnaires. New York: Family Service Association of America.Google Scholar
Fetter, Frank A. (1901) “The subsidizing of private charities.” American Journal of Sociology 7 (3): 359–385.Google Scholar
Ford, Lyman S. (1966) “1965 in retrospect: A year of growth and adaptation as the United Way meets new challenges.” Community (March–April): 8–20.Google Scholar
Friedman, Lawrence J. (2002) “Philanthropy in America: Historicism and its discontents,” in Lawrence J. Friedman and Mark D. McGarvie (eds.) Charity, Philanthropy and Civility in American History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 1–21.Google Scholar
Frumkin, Peter (2002) On Being Nonprofit: A Conceptual and Policy Primer. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Galaskiewicz, Joseph (1985) “Interorganizational relations.” Annual Review of Sociology 11: 281–304.Google Scholar
Glynn, Mary Ann, and Rafaelli, Ryan (2013) “Logic pluralism, organizational design, and practice adoption: The structural embeddedness of CSR programs,” in Michael Lounsbury and Eva Boxenbaum (eds.) Institutional Logics in Action, Part B. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group: 175–197.Google Scholar
Grønbjerg, Kirsten A. (1993) Understanding Nonprofit Funding: Managing Revenues in Social Services and Community Development Organizations. San Francisco: Josey-Bass Publishers.Google Scholar
Grønbjerg, Kirsten A. (2001) “The U.S. nonprofit human service sector: A creeping revolution.” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 30 (2): 276–297.Google Scholar
Grout, C. S. (1900) “Report of the standing committee,” in Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction. Boston: Ellis: 247–55.Google Scholar
Gulati, Ranjay, Wohlgezogen, Franz, and Zhelyazkov, Pavel (2012) “The two facets of collaboration: Cooperation and Coordination in strategic alliances.” Academy of Management Annals 6 (1): 531–583.Google Scholar
Hall, Peter D (1992) Inventing the Nonprofit Sector and Other Essays on Philanthropy, Voluntarism, and Nonprofit Organizations. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Hammack, David C. (1994) “A center for intelligence for the charity organization movement: The foundation’s early years,” in David C. Hammack (ed.) Social Science in the Making: Essays on the Russell Sage Foundation, 1907–1972. New York: Russell Sage Foundation: 1–34.Google Scholar
Hansmann, Henry B. (1980) “The role of nonprofit enterprise.” The Yale Law Journal 89 (5): 835–901.Google Scholar
Haring, Barbara L. (1973) CWLA Voluntary Member Agency Income, 1972–1973. New York: Child Welfare League of America.Google Scholar
Hathaway, Frank A. (1951) “Securing and controlling adequate funds for current and capital fund financing,” in Glen O. Pierell (ed.) The Executive Role in YMCA Administration. New York: Association Press: 249–282.Google Scholar
Heath, Monna, and Dunham, Arthur (1963) Trends in Community Organization: A Study of the Papers on Community Organization Published by the National Conference on Social Welfare, 1874–1960. Chicago: University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Irvin, Renee A. (2010) “Collaboration versus competition in the third sector,” in Bruce A. Seaman and Dennis R. Young (eds.) Handbook of Research on Nonprofit Economics and Management. Northampton, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing: 83–95.Google Scholar
Johns, Ray, and DeMarche, David F. (1951) Community Organization and Agency Responsibility. New York: Association Press.Google Scholar
Johnson, Arlien (1955) “Development of basic methods of social work practice and education.” Social Work Journal 36 (3): 104–114.Google Scholar
Kalamazoo County Community Needs and Resources Survey Committee (1969) Health, Welfare, and Recreation Needs and Resources in Kalamazoo County. Kalamazoo, MI: Community Services Council of Kalamazoo County, Inc.Google Scholar
Kania, John, and Kramer, Mark (2011) “Collective impact.” Stanford Social Innovation Review 9 (1): 36–41.Google Scholar
Kapell, Joseph E. (1950) “Social planning aspects of community organization.” The Jewish Social Service Quarterly 27 (2): 142–147.Google Scholar
Katz, Michael B. (1996) In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Keating, Stephen F. (1979) “The new unity—or plan Z,” in Elmer Tropman (ed.) Some Thoughts on United Way: Selected Writings of the Late Paul Akana. Alexandria, VA: United Way of America: 19–24.Google Scholar
Kramer, Ralph M. (1956) “Dynamics of teamwork in the agency, community, and neighborhood.” Social Work 1 (3): 56–62.Google Scholar
Kramer, Ralph M. (1994) “Voluntary agencies and the contract culture: ‘Dream or nightmare?’” Social Service Review 68 (1): 33–60.Google Scholar
Kruse, Arthur H. (1962) “Priorities for community welfare dollar.” Family Service Highlights 23 (3): 60– 67, 80–83.Google Scholar
Kurzman, Paul A. (1985) “Program development and service coordination as components of community practice,” in Samuel H. Taylor and Robert W. Morris (eds.) Theory and Practice of Community Social Work. New York: Columbia University Press: 95–124.Google Scholar
Laumann, Edward O., Galaskiewicz, Joseph, and Marsden, Peter V. (1978) “Community structure as interorganizational linkages.” Annual Review of Sociology 4: 455–484.Google Scholar
Leebron, Harvey (1924) The Financial Federation Movement: A Fact-Finding Investigation of Community Chest Developments, Methods and Results in 150 American Cities. Chicago: University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Levine, Jeremy R (2016) “The privatization of political representation: Community-based organizations as nonelected neighborhood representatives.” American Sociological Review 81 (6): 1251–1275.Google Scholar
Levine, Sol, and White, Paul E. (1961) “Exchange as a conceptual framework for the study of interorganizational relationships.” Administrative Science Quarterly 5 (4): 583–601.Google Scholar
Litwak, Eugene, and Hylton, Lydia F. (1962) “Interorganizational analysis: A hypothesis on co-ordinating agencies.” Administrative Science Quarterly 6 (4): 395–420.Google Scholar
Lu, Jiahuan (2016) “Fear the government? A meta-analysis of the impact of government funding on nonprofit advocacy engagement.” American Review of Public Administration. Published electronically December 1, 2016. doi: 10.1177/0275074016680024.Google Scholar
Lubove, Ray (1965) The Professional Altruist: The Emergence of Social Work as a Career, 1880–1930. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Lynn, Laurence E. (2002) “Social services and the state: The public appropriation of private charity.” Social Service Review 76 (1): 58–82.Google Scholar
MacRae, Robert H. (1957) “Community welfare councils,” in Russell H. Kurtz ed. Social Work Year Book, 13th ed. New York: National Association of Social Workers: 185–191.Google Scholar
Malm, Karin E., and Maza, Penelope L. (1988) Sources of Agency Income. Washington, DC: Child Welfare League of America.Google Scholar
Martin, Lawrence L. (2000) “The environmental context of social welfare administration,” in Rino J. Patti (ed.) The Handbook of Social Welfare Management. Thousand Oaks, CA: Safe: 55–68.Google Scholar
Marwell, Nicole P. (2007) Bargaining for Brooklyn: Community Organizations in the Entrepreneurial City. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Marwell, Nicole P., and Calabrese, Thad (2015) “A deficit model of collaborative governance: Government-nonprofit fiscal relations in the provision of child welfare services.” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 25 (4): 1031–1058.Google Scholar
Mayo, Leonard W. (1934) “What are we doing to 7 million children?” The Survey 70 (8): 245–247.Google Scholar
McDonald, Joseph (1961) “Signposts for the sixties: What’s ahead for family agencies?” Family Service Highlights 22 (1): 22–26.Google Scholar
McLean, Francis H. (1917) “Central councils and community planning.” The Survey 38 (9): 216–219.Google Scholar
McMillen, Wayne (1945) “Community organization in Chicago—1945.” Social Service Review 19 (2): 157–170.Google Scholar
McQuarrie, Michael (2013) “Community organizations in the foreclosure crisis: The failure of neoliberal civil society.” Politics and Society 41 (1): 73–101.Google Scholar
Miller, David (1989) Market, State, and Community: Theoretical Foundations of Market Socialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Morris, Andrew (2004) “The voluntary sector’s war on poverty.” The Journal of Policy History 16 (4): 275–305.Google Scholar
Morris, Andrew (2009) The Limits of Voluntarism: Charity and Welfare from the New Deal through the Great Society. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Morris, Andrew (2015) “How the state and labor saved charitable fundraising: Community chests, payroll deduction, and the public–private welfare state, 1920–1950.” Studies in American Political Development 29 (1): 106–125.Google Scholar
National League for Nursing (1956) “Income and expenditures of public health nursing agencies in 1954.” Nursing Outlook 4 (10): 577–581.Google Scholar
National League for Nursing (1960) “Income and expenditures in public health nursing agencies—1958.” Nursing Outlook 8 (5): 274–277.Google Scholar
National League for Nursing (1965) “Income and expenditures in public health nursing agencies, 1963.” Nursing Outlook 13 (3): 70–73.Google Scholar
National League for Nursing (1969) “Income and expenditures in voluntary public health nursing agencies, 1967.” Nursing Outlook 17 (3): 40–43.Google Scholar
National League for Nursing (1972) “Income and expenditures in voluntary community health agencies, 1970.” Nursing Outlook 20 (3): 188–192.Google Scholar
National League for Nursing (1975) Yearly Review—1974: Some Statistics on Community Health Services. New York: National League for Nursing.Google Scholar
North, Cecil C. (1931) The Community and Social Welfare: A Study in Community Organization. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Norton, William J. (1916) “City planning in social work.” The Survey 36 (24): 581–584.Google Scholar
O’Connor, J. J. (1913) “The central council,” in Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction. Fort Wayne, IN: Fort Wayne Printing Co.: 340–44.Google Scholar
Offe, Claus (2000) “Civil society and social order: Demarcating and combining market, state and community.” European Journal of Sociology 41 (1): 71–94.Google Scholar
Ormsby, Ralph (1965) “Voluntary organization for social welfare,” in Harry L. Lurie (ed.) Encyclopedia of Social Work, 15th ed. New York: National Association of Social Workers: 332–335.Google Scholar
Oster, Sharon M. (1995) Strategic Management for Nonprofit Organizations: Theory and Cases. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Pfeffer, Jeffrey, and Salancik, Gerald R. (1978) The External Control of Organizations: A Resource Dependence Perspective. New York: Harper and Row.Google Scholar
Podolny, Joel M., and Page, Karen L. (1998) “Network forms of organization.” Annual Review of Sociology 24: 57–76.Google Scholar
Prewitt, Kenneth (2006) “Foundations,” in Walter W., Powell, and Richard Steinberg (eds.) The Nonprofit Sector: A Research Handbook, 2nd ed. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press: 355–377.Google Scholar
Provan, Keith G. (1983) “The federation as an interorganizational linkage network.” Academy of Management Review 8 (1): 79–89.Google Scholar
Rabinowitz, Herbert S. (1975) “Readers’ comments.” Social Casework 56 (9): 562–63.Google Scholar
Reeves, Floyd W. (1940) “Educational and vocational planning for older children,” in Proceedings of the National Conference of Social Work. New York: Columbia University Press: 91–98.Google Scholar
Reisch, Michael, and Wenocur, Stanley (1986) “The future of community organization in social work: Social activism and the politics of profession building.” Social Service Review 60 (1): 70–93.Google Scholar
Richmond, Mary E. (1901) “Charitable co-operation,” in Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction. Boston: Ellis: 298–313.Google Scholar
Richmond, Mary E. (1905) “A tangle of good intent: The hopeless confusion of public subsidies to private institutions in Pennsylvania.” The Survey 14 (12): 843–846.Google Scholar
Rothschild, Joyce, and Stephenson, Max Jr. (2009) “The meaning of democracy in non-profit and community organizations: Charting the currents of change.” American Behavioral Scientist 52 (6): 800–806.Google Scholar
Rushton, Michael, and Brooks, Arthur C. (2007) “Government funding of nonprofit organizations,” in Dennis R. Young (ed.) Financing Nonprofits: Putting Theory into Practice. New York: Rowman and Littlefield: 69–92.Google Scholar
Salamon, Lester M. (1987) “Of market failure, voluntary failure, and third-party government: Toward a theory of government-nonprofit relations in the modern welfare state.” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 16 (1–2): 29–49.Google Scholar
Salamon, Lester M. (1995) Partners in Public Service: Government-Nonprofit Relations in the Modern Welfare State. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Salzman, Harold, and Domhoff, G. William (1983) “Nonprofit organizations and the corporate community.” Social Science History 7 (2): 205–216.Google Scholar
Sanders, Matthew L., and McClellan, John G. (2014) “Being business-like while pursuing a social mission: Acknowledging the inherent tension in US nonprofit organizing.” Organization 21 (1): 68–89.Google Scholar
Scott, W. Richard (2014) Institutions and Organizations: Ideas, Interests, and Identities. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Seeley, John R., Junker, Buford H., Jones, R. Wallace Jr., Jenkins, Nora C., Haugh, Mary T., and Miller, Irving (1957) Community Chest: A Case Study in Philanthropy. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar
Selznick, Philip (1953) TVA and the Grassroots: A Study in the Sociology of Formal Organization. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Shyne, Ann W. (1978) CWLA Voluntary Member Agency Income: 1977–1978. New York: Child Welfare League of America.Google Scholar
Skelcher, Chris, and Smith, Steven R. (2015) “Theorizing hybridity: Institutional logics, complex organizations, and actor identities: The case of nonprofits.” Public Administration 93 (2): 433–448.Google Scholar
Skocpol, Theda (2003) Diminished Democracy: From Membership to Management in American Civic Life. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
Small, Mario L. (2006) “Neighborhood institutions as resource brokers: Childcare centers, interorganizational ties, and resource access among the poor.” Social Problems 53 (2): 274–292.Google Scholar
Smith, Steven R. (2012) “Social services,” in Lester M. Salamon (ed.) The State of Nonprofit America, 2nd ed. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press: 192–228.Google Scholar
Smith, Steven R., and Lipsky, Michael (1993) Nonprofits for Hire: The Welfare State in the Age of Contracting. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Spencer, Sue (1959) The Administration Method in Social Work Education. New York: Council on Social Work Education.Google Scholar
Steiner, Jesse F. (1925) Community Organization: A Study of Its Theory and Current Practice. New York: The Century Co.Google Scholar
Streeck, Wolfgang, and Schmitter, Philippe C. (1985) “Community, market, state—and associations? The prospective contribution of interest governance to social order.” European Sociological Review 1 (2): 119–138.Google Scholar
Street, Elwood (1922) “Putting religion into the community chest.” The Christian Register 101 (27): 639–641.Google Scholar
Suárez, David F. (2010) “Collaboration and professionalization: The contours of public sector funding for nonprofit organizations.” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 21 (2): 307–326.Google Scholar
Suárez, David F., and Esparza, Nicole (2015) “Institutional change and management of public-nonprofit partnerships.” American Review of Public Administration. Published electronically December 6, 2015. doi: 0275074015619482.Google Scholar
Superintendent of Charities (1892) “Report of the Superintendent of Charities for the District of Columbia for the Year Ending June 30, 1891,” in Congressional Series of United States Public Documents, vol. 2950, 52nd Cong., 1st Sess., Executive Document 46. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Sutton, John R. (1990) “Bureaucrats and entrepreneurs: Institutional responses to deviant children in the United States, 1890–1920s.” American Journal of Sociology 95 (6): 1367–1400.Google Scholar
Thompson, James D. (1967) Organizations in Action: Social Science Bases of Administrative Theory. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.Google Scholar
Thomson, Irene T. (2005) “The theory that won’t die: From mass society to the decline of social capital.” Sociological Forum 20 (3): 421–448.Google Scholar
Tierney, John T., Callahan, James J. Jr., Hopkins, H. P., and Janavitz, Mary B. (1973) The United Way and Health Services: A Proposal for New Directions. Alexandria, VA: United Way of America.Google Scholar
Todd, Arthur J. (1932), “Some sociological principles underlying the community chest Movement.” Social Forces 10 (4): 476–484.Google Scholar
United Community Funds and Councils of America (1955) Budgeting: A Manual on Policies and Procedures (Bulletin 180). New York: United Community Funds and Councils of America.Google Scholar
United Community Funds and Councils of America (1965a) Agency Self Support: A Guide for United Funds and Participating Agencies. New York: United Community Funds and Councils of America.Google Scholar
United Community Funds and Councils of America (1965b) 1965 Directory. New York: United Community Funds and Councils of America.Google Scholar
United Community Funds and Councils of America (1967) United Fund Budgeting: A Manual of Policies and Procedures. New York: United Community Funds and Councils of America.Google Scholar
United Fund of the Philadelphia Area (1961) Allocations report.” Box 565, General Pamphlets collection, part 2, allocation-applying, Temple University Library, Urban Archives, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
United Fund of the Philadelphia Area (1973) “52nd annual report.” Box 22, Young Women’s Christian Association of Philadelphia (Pa.), Metropolitan Branch Records, series 1, administration, Temple University Library, Urban Archives, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
United Way of America (1975) Budgeting: A Guide for United Ways and Not-For-Profit Human Service Organizations. Alexandria, VA: United Way of America.Google Scholar
United Way of America (1977) People and Events: A History of the United Way. Washington, DC: United Way of America.Google Scholar
United Way of Chicago (1992) A history of the United Way of Chicago, 1930–1990. Box 1410, folder 2, United Way of Metropolitan Chicago records, Richard J. Daley Library, University of Illinois, Chicago.Google Scholar
United Way of St. Paul Area (1975) Project Breakthrough: Report of the Task Force on Allocations Process and Agency Relations. Box 6, folder 26, Family Service of St. Paul records, series 6, University of Minnesota, Social Welfare History Archives, Minneapolis.Google Scholar
Van de Ven, Andrew H. (1976) “On the nature, formation, and maintenance of relations among organizations.” Academy of Management Review 1 (4): 24–36.Google Scholar
Van Til, Jon (1990) “Toward guidelines for effective philanthropic practice,” in Jon Van Til and Associates (eds.), Critical Issues in American Philanthropy. San Francisco: Josey-Bass: 276–281.Google Scholar
Van Tulder, Rob, and Pfisterer, Stella (2014) “Creating partnering space: Exploring the right fit for sustainable development partnerships.” in M. May Seitanidi, and Andrew Crane (eds.) Social Partnerships and Responsible Business: A Research Handbook. New York: Routledge: 105–124.Google Scholar
Walker, Sydnor H. (1933) Recent Social Trends in the United States: Report of the President’s Research Committee on Social Trends. Vol. 2, Privately Supported Social Work. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Warner, Amos G. (1894) “Public subsidies to private charities,” in Daniel C. Gilman (ed.) The Organization of Charities. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press: 120–132.Google Scholar
Warren, Roland L. (1965) “Concerted decision-making in the community,” in Proceedings of the National Conference on Social Welfare. New York: Columbia University Press: 117–34.Google Scholar
Warren, Roland L. (1973) “Comprehensive planning and coordination: Some functional aspects.” Social Problems 20 (3): 355–364.Google Scholar
Watson, Frank D. (1922) The Charity Organization Movement in the United States. New York: The Macmillan Company.Google Scholar
Welfare Council of New York City (1930) Bibliography with Notes on Social Work Finance and Publicity. New York: Welfare Council of New York City.Google Scholar
Wellford, W. Harrison, and Gallagher, Janne G. (1988) Unfair Competition? The Challenge to Charitable Tax Exemption. Washington, DC: The National Assembly of National Voluntary Health and Social Welfare Organizations.Google Scholar
Woolford, Andrew, and Curran, Amelia (2013) “Community positions, neoliberal dispositions: Managing nonprofit social services within the bureaucratic field.” Critical Sociology 39 (1): 45–63.Google Scholar
Wooten, Melissa, and Hoffman, Andrew J. (2008) “Organizational fields: Past, present and future,” in R. Greenwood, C. Oliver, K. Sahlin, and R. Suddaby (eds.) The Sage Handbook of Organizational Institutionalism. London: Sage: 130–148.Google Scholar
Yessian, Mark R., and Lang, Rosalie H. (1981) “The quest for human services integration as reflected in HEW.” Journal of Health and Human Resources Administration 3 (4): 517–539.Google Scholar
Young, Dennis R. (2010) “Nonprofits and public policy in the United States: The evolution of accountability,” in Benjamin Gidron, and Michal Bar (eds.) Policy Initiatives Towards the Third Sector in International Perspective. New York: Springer: 45–66.Google Scholar
Young, Dennis R., Salamon, Lester M., and Grinsfelder, Mary C. (2012) “Commercialization, social ventures, and for-profit competition,” in Lester M. Salamon (ed.) The State of Nonprofit America, 2nd ed. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press: 521–548.Google Scholar
Zunz, Olivier (2012) Philanthropy in America: A History. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar