Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2brh9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-29T00:21:58.017Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Unpacking the Relationship between Parenting and Poverty: Theory, Evidence and Policy

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 March 2015

Vincent La Placa
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Counselling and Social Work, University of Greenwich E-mail: [email protected]
Judy Corlyon
Affiliation:
The Tavistock Institute of Human Relations (TIHR) E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

Policy discourses around child poverty and its causes and effects on families emerged in the 1990s, culminating in the Coalition government's emphasis on the quality of couple relations in improving child outcomes and in reducing child poverty. This article reviews and updates the current evidence base around the relationship between parenting and poverty. Evidence suggests an intricate relationship between complex and mediating processes of, for instance, income, parental stress, disrupted parenting practices and neighbourhoods and environments, as opposed to a simplistic causal relationship between poverty, parenting and child outcomes. The article then proceeds to suggest responses to enhance the evidence and research. Lastly, it considers the implications for child poverty policy, arguing that current responses are too simplistic and do not sufficiently reflect the evidence base.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

About Families: Centre for Research on Families and Relationships (CRFR) (2012) Parenting on a Low Income, Topic Report, March 2012, Edinburgh: About Families.Google Scholar
Alakeson, V. (2012) The Price of Motherhood: Women and Part-Time Work, London: Resolution Foundation.Google Scholar
Alcock, P. (2006) Understanding Poverty, 3rd edn, London: Palgrave.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, G. (2011) Early Intervention, the Next Steps: An Independent Report to Her Majesty's Government, London: HM Government.Google Scholar
Archer, L., DeWitt, J., Osborne, J., Dillon, J., Willis, B. and Wong, B. (2012) ‘Science aspirations and family habitus: how families shape children's engagement and identification with science’, American Educational Research Journal, 49, 5, 881908.Google Scholar
Ashworth, K., Hardman, J., Liu, W. C., Maguire, S., Middleton, S., Dearden, L., Emmerson, C., Frayne, C., Goodman, A., Ichimura, H. and Meghir, C. (2001) Educational Maintenance Allowance, the First Year: A Quantitative Evaluation, Research Report 257, London: Department for Education and Skills.Google Scholar
Asmussen, K., Corlyon, J., Hauari, H. and La Placa, V. (2007) Supporting Parents of Teenagers, Research Report 830, London: Department for Education and Skills.Google Scholar
Attree, P. (2005) ‘Parenting support in the context of poverty: a meta-synthesis of the qualitative evidence’, Health and Social Care in the Community, 13, 4, 330–7.Google Scholar
Avis, M., Bulman, D. and Leighton, P. (2007) ‘Factors affecting participation in Sure Start programmes: a qualitative investigation of parents’ views’, Health and Social Care in the Community, 15, 1, 203–11.Google ScholarPubMed
Axford, N., Lehtonen, M., Kaoukji, D., Tobin, K. and Berry, V. (2012) ‘Engaging parents in parenting programs: lessons from research and practice’, Children and Youth Services Review, 34, 10, 2061–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnes, J. (2004) Place and Parenting, a Study of Four Communities: The Relevance of Community Characteristics and Residents’ Perceptions of Their Neighbourhoods for Parenting and Child Behaviour in Four Contrasting Locations: Final Report of the Families and Neighbourhoods Study (FANS) Submitted to the NSPCC, Part 1: Quantitative Results, London: Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues, Birkbeck, University of London.Google Scholar
Baumrind, D. (1991) ‘The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance misuse’, Journal of Early Adolescence, 11, 1, 5695.Google Scholar
Belsky, J. (1984) ‘The determinants of parenting: a process model’, Child Development, 55, 1, 5695.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belsky, J. and Vondra, I. (1989) ‘Lessons from child abuse: the determinants of parenting’, in Chicchetti, D. and Carlson, V. (eds.), Child Maltreatment, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 153202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berthoud, R., Bryan, M. and Bardasi, E. (2004) The Dynamics of Deprivation: The Relationship Between Income and Material Deprivation over Time, London: DWP.Google Scholar
Blanden, J. and Gregg, P. (2004) Family Income and Educational Attainment: A Review of Approaches and Evidence for Britain, London: Centre for Economic Performance, London School of Economics.Google Scholar
Borgonovi, F. and Montt, G. (2012) Parental Involvement in Selected PISA Countries and Economies, OECD Educational Working Paper No. 73, Paris: OECD.Google Scholar
Boyden, J., Hardgrove, J. and Knowles, C. (2012) ‘Continuity and change in poor children's lives: evidence from young lives’, in Minujin, A. and Nandy, S. (eds.), Global Child Poverty and Wellbeing: Measurements, Concepts, Policy and Action, Bristol: The Policy Press, pp. 475507.Google Scholar
Bradbury, B. (2003) Child Poverty: A Review, Policy Research Paper No. 2, Canberra: Commonwealth Department of Family and Community Services.Google Scholar
Brewer, M., Browne, J., Hood, A., Joyce, R. and Sibieta, L. (2013) ‘The short- and medium-term impacts of the recession on the UK income distribution’, Fiscal Studies, 34, 2, 179201.Google Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1989) ‘Ecological systems theory’, in Vasta, R. (ed.), Annals of Child Development ‒ Six Theories of Child Development: Revised Formulations and Current Issues, Greenwich, CT: JAI, pp. 187250.Google Scholar
Caughy, M. O., O’Campo, P. J. and Mutaner, C. (2003) ‘When being alone might be better: neighbourhood poverty, social capital and child mental health’, Social Science and Medicine, 57, 2, 227–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cawson, P., Wattam, C., Brooker, S. and Kelly, G. (2000) Child Maltreatment in the United Kingdom: A Study of the Prevalence of Child Abuse and Neglect, London: NSPCC.Google Scholar
Chen, Z. and Kaplan, H. (2001) ‘Intergenerational transmission of constructive parenting’, Journal of Marriage and the Family, 63, 1, 1731.Google Scholar
Conger, R. D., Patterson, G. R. and Ge, X. (1995) ‘It takes two to replicate: a meditational model for the impact of parents’ stress on adolescent adjustment’, Child Development, 66, 1, 8097.Google Scholar
Cooper, K. and Stewart, K. (2013) Does Money Affect Children's Outcomes? A Systematic Review, York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.Google Scholar
Curtis, L., Dooley, M. and Phipps, S. (2004) ‘Child well-being and neighbourhood quality: evidence from the Canadian National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth’, Social Science and Medicine, 58, 10, 1917–27.Google Scholar
Dahl, G. B. and Lochner, L. (2005) The Impact of Family Income on Child Achievement, working paper 11279, Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, http://www.nber.org/papers/w11279 [accessed 22.12.2014].CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daly, M. (2011) ‘Shifts in family policy in the UK under New Labour’, Journal of European Social Policy, 20, 5, 433–43.Google Scholar
Davis, F. A., McDonald, L. and Axford, N. (2012) Technique is not Enough: A Framework for Ensuring that Evidence-Based Parenting Programmes are Socially Inclusive, Discussion Paper, August 2012, Leicester: British Psychological Society.Google ScholarPubMed
Desforges, C. and Abouchaar, A. (2003) The Impact of Parental Involvement, Parental Support and Family Achievements and Adjustment: A Literature Review, Research Report No. 433, London: Department for Education and Skills.Google Scholar
Dyson, C., Gorin, S., Hooper, C. and Cabral, C. (2009) ‘Bangladeshi families living in hardship: findings from research using a life-history approach’, Child and Family Social Work, 14, 3, 362–71.Google Scholar
Edwards, R. and Gillies, V. (2004) ‘Support in parenting: values and consensus concerning who to turn to’, Journal of Social Policy, 33, 4, 627–47.Google Scholar
Elder, G., Van Nguyen, T. and Caspi, A. (1985) ‘Linking family hardships to children's lives’, Child Development, 56, 2, 361375.Google Scholar
Epps, S. R. and Huston, A. C. (2007) ‘Effects of a poverty intervention policy demonstration on parenting and child behaviour: a test of the direction of effects’, Social Science Quarterly, 88, 2, 344–65.Google Scholar
Ermisch, J., Francesconi, M. and Pevalin, D. J. (2001) Outcomes for Children of Poverty, DWP Research Report No. 158, Leeds: HMO.Google Scholar
Fauth, R. C., Leventhal, T. and Brooks-Gunn, J. (2007) ‘Welcome to the neighbourhood? Long-term impacts of moving to low-poverty neighborhoods on poor children's and adolescents’ outcomes’, Journal of Research on Adolescence, 17, 2, 249–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feinstein, L. (2003) ‘Inequality in the early cognitive development of British children in the 1970 cohort’, Economica, 70, 277, 73–9.Google Scholar
Feinstein, L., Duckworth, K. and Sabates, R. (2004) A Model of the Intergenerational Transmission of Educational Success: Wider Benefits of Learning, Research Report No. 10, London: Centre for Research on the Wider Benefits of Learning.Google Scholar
Field, F. (2010) The Foundation Years: Preventing Poor Children Becoming Poor Adults, Report of the Independent Review on Poverty and Life Chances, London: Cabinet Office.Google Scholar
Fram, M. S. (2003) Managing to Parent: Social Support, Social Capital, and Parenting Practices among Welfare-Participating Mothers with Young Children, Institute for Research on Poverty Discussion Paper No. 1263-03, Washington, DC: Institute for Research on Poverty.Google Scholar
Friedrichs, J., Galster, G. and Musterd, S. (2013) Life in Poverty Neighbourhoods: European and American Perspectives, London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Furstenberg, F. F. Jr., Cooke, T. D., Eccles, J., Elder, G. H. and Sameroff, A. (1999) Managing to Make It: Urban Families and Adolescent Success, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Gentleman, A. (2012) ‘Housing benefit cap forces families to leave central London or be homeless’, http://www.theguardian.com/society/2012/feb/16/housing-benefit-cap-families-central-london [accessed 16.02.2012].Google Scholar
Ghate, D. and Hazel, N. (2002) Parenting in Poor Environments: Stress, Support and Coping, London: Jessica Kingsley.Google Scholar
Gibbs, G. R. (2007) Analyzing Qualitative Data, London: Sage.Google Scholar
Giddens, A. (1984) The Constitution of Society, Cambridge: Polity Press.Google Scholar
Gillies, V. (2005a) ‘Raising the meritocracy: parenting and the individualization of social class’, Sociology, 39, 5, 835–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gillies, V. (2005b) ‘Meeting parents’ needs? Discourses of “support” and “inclusion” in family policy’, Critical Social Policy, 25, 1, 7090.Google Scholar
Gillies, V. (2007) Marginalised Mothers: Exploring Working Class Experiences of Parenting, Abingdon: Routledge.Google Scholar
Gillies, V. (2008) ‘Perspectives on parenting responsibility: contextualizing values and practices’, Journal of Law and Society, 35, 1, 95112.Google Scholar
Gillies, V. (2011) ‘From function to competence: engaging with the new politics of family’, Sociological Research Online, 16, http://www.socresonline.org.uk/16/4/11.html [accessed 22.12.2014].CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gillies, V. (2013) ‘Personalising poverty: parental determinism and the Big Society agenda’, in Atkinson, W., Roberts, S. and Savage, M. (eds.), Class Inequality in Austerity Britain: Power, Difference and Suffering, Basingstoke: Palgrave, pp. 90111.Google Scholar
Gordon, D. (1998) ‘Definitions of concepts for the perception of poverty and social exclusion’, in Bradshaw, J., Gordon, D., Levitas, R., Middleton, S., Pantazis, C., Payne, S. and Townsend, P. (eds.), Perceptions of Poverty and Social Exclusion, Report on Preparatory Research, Townsend Centre for International Poverty Research, Bristol: University of Bristol, pp. 515.Google Scholar
Gordon, D. and Nandy, S. (2012) ‘Measuring child poverty and deprivation’, in Minuji, A. and Nandy, S. (eds.), Global Child Poverty and Wellbeing: Measurements, Concepts, Policy and Action, Bristol: The Policy Press, pp. 57103.Google Scholar
Gregg, P. and Washbrook, E. (2011) ‘The role of attitudes and behaviours in explaining socio-economic differences in attainment at 11’, Longitudinal and Life Course Studies, 2, 1, 4158.Google Scholar
Gutman, L. M., McLoyd, V. C. and Tokoyawa, T. (2005) ‘Financial strain, neighbourhood stress, parenting behaviours, and adolescent adjustment in urban African American families’, Journal of Research on Adolescence, 15, 4, 425–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gutman, L. M., Brown, J. and Ackerman, R. (2009) Nurturing Parenting Capability: The Early Years, London: Center for Research on the Wider Benefits of Learning, Institute of Education.Google Scholar
Harris, K. and Marmer, J. (1996) ‘Poverty, paternal involvement and adolescent wellbeing’, Journal of Family Issues, 17, 5, 614–40.Google Scholar
Hartas, D. (2011) ‘Families’ social background matter: socio-economic factors, home learning and young children's language, literacy and social outcomes’, British Educational Research Journal, 37, 6, 893914.Google Scholar
Hartas, D. (2012) ‘Inequality and the home learning environment: predictions about seven-year-olds’ language and literacy’, British Educational Research Journal, 38, 5, 859–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartas, D. (2014) Parenting, Family Policy and Children's Well-Being in an Unequal Society: A New Culture War for Parents, London: Palgrave.Google Scholar
Hill, A. and Spittlehouse, C. (2003) ‘What is critical appraisal?’, Evidence Medicine, 3, 2, 18.Google Scholar
Hills, J., Brewer, M., Jenkins, S., Lister, R., Lupton, R., Machin, S., Mills, C., Madood, T., Rees, T. and Riddell, S. (2010) An Anatomy of Economic Inequality in the UK, Report of the National Equality Panel, London: Centre for Analysis of Social Exclusion.Google Scholar
Hobcraft, J. (1998) Intergenerational and Life Course Transmission of Social Exclusion: Influences of Childhood Poverty, Family Disruption, and Contact with the Police, CASE Paper 15, London: London School of Economics, STICERD.Google Scholar
Holmes, J. and Kiernan, K. (2010) Fragile Families in the UK: Evidence from the Millennium Cohort Study, York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.Google Scholar
Holmes, J. and Kiernan, K. (2013) ‘Persistent poverty and children's development in the early years of childhood’, Policy and Politics, 41, 1, 1941.Google Scholar
Jefferis, B., Power, C. and Hertzman, C. (2002) ‘Birth weight, childhood socioeconomic environment and cognitive development in the 1958 British birth cohort study’, British Medical Journal, 325, 305–8.Google Scholar
Jencks, C. and Mayer, S. E. (1990) ‘The social consequences of growing up in a poor neighbourhood’, in Lynn, L. and McGeary, M. (eds.), Inner-City Poverty in the United States, Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences Press, pp. 111–86.Google Scholar
Jensen, T. and Tyler, I. (2012) ‘Austerity parenting: new economies of parent-citizenship’, Studies in the Maternal, 4, 2, http://www.mamsie.bbk.ac.uk/editorial.html [accessed 22.12.2014].Google Scholar
Katz, I., Corlyon, J., La Placa, V. and Hunter, S. (2007a) The Relationship Between Parenting and Poverty, London: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.Google Scholar
Katz, I., La Placa, V. and Hunter, S. (2007b). Barriers to Inclusion and Successful Engagement of Parents in Mainstream Services, York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.Google Scholar
Kiernan, K. E. and Mensah, F. K. (2011) ‘Poverty, family, resources and children's early educational attainment: the mediating role of parenting’, British Educational Research Journal, 37, 2, 317–36.Google Scholar
Kumar, V. (1993) Poverty and Inequality in the UK: The Effects on Children, London: Daycare Trust.Google Scholar
La Placa, V. and Corlyon, J. (2014a) ‘Barriers to inclusion and successful engagement of parents in mainstream services: evidence and research’, Journal of Children's Services, 9, 3, 220–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
La Placa, V. and Corlyon, J. (2014b). ‘Social tourism and organised capitalism: research, policy and practice’, Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 6, 1, 6679.Google Scholar
La Placa, V. and Knight, A. (2014). ‘Wellbeing: a new policy phenomenon?’, in Knight, A., La Placa, V. and McNaught, A. (eds.), Wellbeing: Policy and Practice, Banbury: Lantern, pp. 1727.Google Scholar
La Placa, V., McVey, D., MacGregor, E., Smith, A. and Scott, M. (2014) ‘The contribution of qualitative research to the Healthy Foundations Life-stage Segmentation’, Critical Public Health, 24, 3, 266–82.Google Scholar
Larzelere, R. E. and Patterson, G. R. (1990) ‘Parental management: mediator of the effect of socioeconomic status on early delinquency’, Criminology, 28, 2, 307–23.Google Scholar
Leventhal, T. and Brooks-Gunn, J. (2003) ‘Moving to opportunity: an experimental study of neighborhood effects on mental health’, American Journal of Public Health, 93, 9, 1576–82.Google Scholar
Levitas, R. (2012) ‘Utopia calling: eradicating child poverty in the United Kingdom and beyond’, in Minujin, A. and Nandy, S. (eds.), Global Child Poverty and Wellbeing: Measurements, Concepts, Policy and Action, Bristol: The Policy Press, pp. 449–75.Google Scholar
Lexmond, J. and Reeves, R. (2009) Parents are the Principal Architects of a Fairer Society: Building Character, London: Demos.Google Scholar
Lindblad-Goldberg, M. (1989) ‘Successful minority single-parent families’, in Combrink-Graham, L. (ed.), Children in Family Contexts, New York: Guildford Press, pp. 116–34.Google Scholar
Lister, R. (2010) Understanding Theories and Concepts in Social Policy, Bristol: The Policy Press.Google Scholar
Lundberg, S., Pollack, R. and Wales, T. (1997) ‘Do husbands and wives pool their resources?’, Journal of Human Resources, 32, 3, 463–80.Google Scholar
Marsh, A. and McKay, S. (1994) Poor Smokers, London: Policy Studies Institute.Google Scholar
Mayer, S. E. (1997) What Money Can't Buy, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
McCulloch, A. and Joshi, H. E. (2001) ‘Neighbourhood and family influences on the cognitive ability of children in the British National Child Development Study’, Social Science and Medicine, 53, 5, 579–91.Google Scholar
McDonald, L., FitzRoy, S., Fuchs, I., Fooken, I. and Klasen, H. (2012) ‘Strategies for high retention rates of low-income families in FAST (families and schools together): an evidence-based parenting programme in the USA, UK, Holland and Germany’, European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9, 1, 7588.Google Scholar
McSherry, D. (2004) ‘Which came first, the chicken or the egg? Examining the relationship between child neglect and poverty’, British Journal of Social Work, 34, 5, 727–33.Google Scholar
Meltzer, H., Gatward, R., Goodman, R. and Ford, T. (2000) Mental Health of Children and Adolescents in Great Britain, London: The Stationery Office.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Middleton, S., Ashworth, K. and Braithwaite, I. (1997) Small Fortunes: Spending on Children, Childhood Poverty and Parental Sacrifice, York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.Google Scholar
Moore, K. A. and Vandivere, S. (2000) Stressful Family Lives: Child and Parent Well-Being: Child Trends, Series B-17, Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.Google Scholar
Moran, P., Ghate, D. and van der Merwe, A. (2004) What Works in Parenting Support? A Review of the International Evidence, London: Department for Education and Skills.Google Scholar
Moulin, S., Waldfogel, J. and Washbrook, E. (2014) Baby Bonds: Parenting, Attachment and a Secure Base for Children, London: The Sutton Trust.Google Scholar
Newland, R. P., Crnic, K. A., Cox, M. J. and Mills-Koonce, R. (2013) ‘The family model stress and maternal psychological symptoms: mediated pathways from economic hardship to parenting’, Journal of Family Psychology, 27, 1, 96105.Google Scholar
Oakley, A., Hickey, D. and Rigby, A. S. (1994) ‘Love or money? Social support, class inequality and the health of women and children’, European Journal of Public Health, 4, 4, 265–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Connor, T. and Scott, S. (2007) Parenting and Outcomes for Children, York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.Google Scholar
O’Neill, R. (2002) Experiments in Living: The Fatherless Family, London: CIVITAS.Google Scholar
Otter, C. (2013) ‘Family resources and mid-life level of education: a longitudinal study of the mediating influence of childhood parental involvement’, British Educational Research Journal, 40, 3, 555–74.Google Scholar
Park, S. and Holloway, S. (2013) ‘No parent left behind: predicting parental involvement in adolescents’ education within a sociodemographically diverse population’, The Journal of Educational Research, 106, 2, 105–19.Google Scholar
Parke, R. and Buriel, R. (1998) ‘Socialisation in the family: ecological and ethical perspectives’, in Eisenberg, N., Damon, W. and Lerner, R. M. (eds.), Handbook of Child Psychology: Social, Emotional, and Personality Development, 5th edn, New York: Wiley, pp. 429505.Google Scholar
Peters, M., Seeds, K., Goldstein, A. and Coleman, N. (2008) Parental Involvement in Children's Education 2007, Research Report DCSF-RR034, London: BMRB Research/DCSF.Google Scholar
Pheonix, A. and Husain, F. (2007) Parenting and Ethnicity, York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.Google Scholar
Pinderhughes, E. E., Nix, R., Foster, E. M. and Jones, D. (2001) ‘Parenting in context: impact of neighbourhood poverty, residential stability, public services, social networks, and danger on parental behaviours’, Journal of Family and Marriage, 63, 941–53.Google Scholar
Popay, J. and Mallinson, S. (2013) ‘Qualitative research review and synthesis’, in Bourgeault, I., Dingwall, R., and de Vries, R. (eds.), The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research Methods in Health Research, London: Sage, pp. 289307.Google Scholar
Reay, D. (2013) ‘Social mobility, a panacea for austere times; tales of emperors, frogs, and tadpoles’, British Journal of Sociology of Education, 34, 56, 660–77.Google Scholar
Ridge, T. (2009) Living with Poverty: A Review of the Literature on Children's and Families’ Experiences of Poverty, Research Report No. 594, London: Department for Work and Pensions.Google Scholar
Rigg, J. and Sefton, T. (2004) Income Dynamics and the Life Cycle, CASE paper 24, London: London School of Economics.Google Scholar
Robson, K. (2010) ‘Good responsible parenting: child-support guidelines in an era of neo-liberalism’, Canadian Journal of Law and Society, 25, 2, 129–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ross, D. P. and Roberts, P. (1999) Income and Child Well-Being: A New Perspective on the Poverty Debate, Ottawa: Canadian Council on Social Development.Google Scholar
Russell, M., Harris, B. and Gockel, A. (2008) ‘Parenting in poverty: perspectives of high-risk parents’, Journal of Children and Poverty, 14, 1, 8398.Google Scholar
Sanbonmatsu, L., Kling, J. R., Duncan, G. J. and Brooks-Gunn, J. (2006) Neighborhoods and Academic Achievement: Results from the Moving to Opportunity Experiment, NBER Working Paper No. 11909, Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sastry, N. (2015) ‘Stressful life experiences and contexts: the effects on parents and parenting’, in Amato, P. R., Booth, A., McHale, S. M. and Van Hook, J. (eds.), Families in an Era of Increasing Inequalities: Diverging Destinies, London: Springer, pp. 105–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siraj-Blatchford, I. (2010) ‘Learning in the home and at school: how working class children “succeed against the odds”’, British Educational Research Journal, 36, 6, 463–82.Google Scholar
Smith, N. and Middleton, S. (2007) A Review of Poverty Dynamics Research in the UK, York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.Google Scholar
Spencer, M. (1996) Poverty and Child Health, Oxford: Radcliffe Medical Press.Google Scholar
Sullivan, A., Joshi, H., Ketende, S. and Obolenskaya, P. (2010) The Consequences at Age 7 of Early Childhood Disadvantage in Northern Ireland and Great Britain, London: Institute of Education.Google Scholar
Tavistock Institute of Human Relations, National Foundation for Educational Research, Thomas Corum Research Unit and Qa Research (2014) Relationship Support Interventions Evaluation, Research Report RR315, London: Department of Education.Google Scholar
Turner, H. (2006) ‘Stress, social resources, and depression among never-married and divorced rural mothers’, Rural Sociology, 71, 3, 479504.Google Scholar
Van Ham, M., Hedman, L., Manley, D., Coulter, R. and Osth, J. (2014) ‘Intergenerational transmission of neighbourhood poverty: an analysis of neighbourhood histories of individuals’, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 39, 3, 402–17.Google Scholar
Waylen, A. and Stewart-Brown, S. (2009) ‘Factors influencing parenting in early childhood: a prospective longitudinal study focusing on change’, Child: Care, Health and Development, 36, 2, 198207.Google Scholar
Welshman, J. (2007) From Transmitted Deprivation to Social Exclusion: Policy, Poverty, and Parenting, Bristol: The Policy Press.Google Scholar
Yaqub, S. (2002) ‘Poor children grow into poor adults: harmful mechanism or over-deterministic theory?’, Journal of International Development, 14, 8, 1081–93.Google Scholar