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⁶ Bicchieri, Grammar of Society, chap. 1.

⁷ This will not be the case with a moral norm, where preferences for following such a norm are typically socially unconditional.

⁸ Ibid.

⁹ Cialdini, Robert B., Reno, Raymond R., and Kallgren, Carl A., “A Focus Theory of Normative Conduct: Recycling the Concept of Norms to Reduce Littering in Public Places,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58, no. 6 (1990): 1015–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁰ Most of what we are saying will also apply to descriptive norms.

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²⁹ He was specifically referring to ethnic categories when he said this, but we think his quotation applies to social categories and social schemata in general.

³⁰ Allport, The Nature of Prejudice, 179.

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⁵¹ This proves to be particularly problematic for social norms, as the stimuli that activate a norm are often highly social in nature

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⁵⁵ Rothbart, “Memory Processes and Social Beliefs.” See also: Rumelhart, David E. and Norman, Donald A., “Accretion, Tuning and Restructuring: Three Modes of Learning,” in Cotton, J. W. and Klatskey, R. L., eds., Schematic Factors in Cognition (Hillsdale, NJ: Earlbaum 1978).Google Scholar

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⁶⁰ For similar results, see Hewstone et al., “Perceptions of Homogenous and Heterogeneous Groups.”

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⁶³ Weber and Crocker, “Revision of Stereotypic Beliefs.”

⁶⁴ We consider a “prototype analysis” to be the best way to measure a schema. Such measurement will be important when attempting to determine the structure of a schema for a population and the degree to which such a structure is shared. For example of work using prototype analysis, see: Fehr, Beverley, “Prototype Analysis of the Concepts of Love and Commitment,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55, no. 4 (1988): 557–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁶⁵ Crocker et al., “Schematic Bases of Belief Change.”

⁶⁶ In fact, cognitive therapy largely relies on alternative schemata as replacements when attempting to reduce reliance on maladaptive ones. See Padesky, Christine, “Schema Change Processes in Cognitive Therapy,” Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy 1, no. 5 (1994): 267–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁷⁰ Also known as female genital mutilation (FGM).

⁷¹ E.g., Althaus, Frances, “Female Circumcision: Rite of Passage or Violation of Rights?" International Family Planning Perspectives (1997): 130–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁷⁴ Helmore, “In Sudan: Changing Labels, Changing Lives,” para. 4.

⁷⁵ Helmore, “In Sudan: Changing Labels, Changing Lives.”

⁷⁶ Behrendt, Alice, “Female Genital Cutting in Moyamba and Bombali Districts of Sierra Leone: Perceptions, Attitudes and Practice” (Dakar, Senegal: Plan International, 2005).Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Johnston and Hewstone, “Subtyping and Perceived Typicality.”

⁷⁸ Joint evaluation of the UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Programme on Female Genital Mutilation / Cutting (FGM/C): Accelerating Change (2008–2012).

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⁸⁰ Helmore, “In Sudan: Changing Labels, Changing Lives.”

⁸¹ Toubia and Sharief, “Female Genital Mutilation: Have We Made Progress?”

⁸² Ibid.

⁸³ Bicchieri and Mercier, “Norms and Beliefs: How Change Occurs”; Kahan, Dan, “Gentle Nudges versus Hard Shoves: Solving the Sticky Norms Problem,” University of Chicago Law Review (2000): 607–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁸⁷ Mukherjee, Nilanjana, Robiarto, Amin, Saputra, Efentrif, and Wartonio, D. Joko, “Achieving and Sustaining Open Defecation-Free Communities: Learning from East Java,” Report from WSP (Washington, DC: World Bank 2012);Google Scholar Wateraid, Comparison and Adaptation of Social Change Dynamics for the Collective Abandonment of Open Defecation (2008). Retrieved from Wateraid International website: http://www.wateraid.org/∼/media/Publications/open-defecation-social-change-dynamics-ghana-study.pdf

⁸⁸ Kamal Kar and Robert Chambers, “Handbook on Community-Led Total Sanitation.”

⁸⁹ Galbraith and Thomas, “Community Approaches to Total Sanitation”; Kamal Kar and Robert Chambers, “Handbook on Community-Led Total Sanitation.”

⁹⁰ Kamal Kar and Robert Chambers, “Handbook on Community-Led Total Sanitation.”

⁹¹ Ibid, 27.

⁹² Ibid.

⁹³ Ibid.

⁹⁴ Bongartz, Petra, Musyoki, Samuel Musembi, Milligan, Angela, and Ashley, Holly, “Tales of Shit: Community-Led Total Sanitation in Africa–An Overview,” Participatory Learning and Action 61, no. 1 (2010): 27–50.Google Scholar

⁹⁵ Kamal Kar and Robert Chambers, “Handbook on Community-Led Total Sanitation.”

⁹⁶ We say “script” here as we are specifically referring to private defecation as an event. Open defecation is also a loose script, without having highly ordered action elements. However, as we are more interested in open defecation as a general concept, we have referred to it as a schema—technically either term is applicable.

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¹⁰⁵ Ibid.

¹⁰⁶ Complete abandonment is needed for any meaningful health improvements to take place.

¹⁰⁷ Bicchieri, Norms in the Wild.

¹⁰⁸ Mansbridge, Jane and Flaster, Katherine, “Male Chauvinist, Feminist, Sexist, and Sexual Harassment: Different Trajectories in Feminist Linguistic Innovation,” American Speech 80, no. 3 (2005): 261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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¹¹⁰ Ibid, 263.

¹¹¹ Department of Environment and Conservation (DEC), Sustainability Programs Division, “Don’t Be a Tosser: Litter Prevention Campaign 2002” (2005). Retrieved: http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/warr/2005034_ed_dontbeatosser_cs.pdf

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¹¹⁶ La Ferrara et al., “Soap Operas and Fertility: Evidence from Brazil.”

¹¹⁷ Ibid.

¹¹⁸ Ibid.

¹¹⁹ Ibid.

¹²⁰ Ibid., 9.

¹²¹ Brown, “Sociocultural Influence of Predevelopment Soap Operas”; Tufte, Thomas, “Soap Operas and Sense-Making: Mediations and Audience Ethnography,” Entertainment–Education and Social Change: History, Research, and Practice (2004): 399–415.Google Scholar

¹²² Brown, “Sociocultural Influence of Predevelopment Soap Operas.”

¹²³ La Ferrara et al., “Soap Operas and Fertility: Evidence from Brazil.”

¹²⁴ Brown, “Sociocultural Influence of Predevelopment Soap Operas”; Tufte, “Soap Operas and Sense Making.”

¹²⁵ Trujillo and Paluck, “Experimental Effects of a Televised Soap Opera.”

¹²⁶ Brown, “Sociocultural Influence of Predevelopment Soap Operas”; Arvind Singhal and Everett Rogers, “The Hum Log Story” (1989).

¹²⁷ Jensen and Oster, “Cable Television and Women’s Status in India.”

¹²⁸ Johnson, Kirk, “Media and Social Change: The Modernizing Influences of Television in Rural India,” Media, Culture and Society 23, no. 2 (2001): 147–69;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Scrase, Timothy, “Television, the Middle Classes and the Transformation of Cultural Identities in West Bengal, India,” International Communication Gazette 64, no. 4 (2002): 323–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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¹³⁰ Ibid., 1068.

¹³¹ Rogers et al., “Effects of an Entertainment-Education Radio Soap Opera.”

¹³² Ibid.; Slater, Michael, “Entertainment Education and the Persuasive Impact of Narratives,” in Green, Melanie, Strange, Jeffrey J., and Brock, Timothy C., eds. Narrative Impact: Social and Cognitive Foundations (New York: Taylor and Francis, 2003), 157–81.Google Scholar

¹³³ Rogers et al., “Effects of an Entertainment-Education Radio Soap Opera.”

¹³⁴ Ibid.

¹³⁵ Bicchieri, Norms in the Wild.