¹ Those guilty of this sin (and no doubt deserving of serious punishment) include Sapolsky, Robert, “The Frontal Cortex and the Criminal Justice System” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London vol. 359 (2004): 1787–96Google ScholarPubMed; Greene, Josh and Cohen, Jonathan, “For the Law, Neuroscience Changes Nothing and Everything,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London vol. 359 (2004): 1775–85Google ScholarPubMed; Dawkins, Richard, “Let's All Stop Beating Basil's Car,” posted 2006 at http://www.edge.org/q2006/q06_9.htmlGoogle Scholar; Banks, William, “Does Consciousness Cause Misbehavior?” in Pockett, S., Banks, W., and Gallagher, S., eds., Does Consciousness Cause Behavior? (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006), 253Google Scholar; Clark, Thomas W., “Fear of Mechanism: A Compatibilist Critique of ‘The Volitional Brain,’” Journal for Consciousness Studies vol. 6 (1999): 279–93Google Scholar.

² Moore, Michael, Placing Blame: A General Theory of the Criminal Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997), 87–92Google Scholar.

³ Kant, Immanuel, The Metaphysical Elements of Justice, Ladd, J., trans. (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1965), 102Google Scholar.

⁴ Moore, Placing Blame, 45–60, 191–193, 403–404.

⁵ Explored at length by me in Moore, Michael, Law and Psychiatry: Rethinking the Relationship (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 67–84, 100–112Google Scholar.

⁶ Pinker, Steven, “The Fear of Determinism,” in Baer, J., Kaufman, J., and Baumeister, R., eds., Are We Free? Psychology and Free Will (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 317Google Scholar.

⁷ On “indirect,” or “two-step,” utilitarianisms generally, see Alexander, Larry, “Pursuing the Good—Indirectly,” Ethics vol. 95 (1985), 315–32CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Pinker's is a trait or motive kind of indirect utilitarianism. So-called “trait” or “motive” utilitarianism (according to which we should adopt those traits that in the long run will maximize utility), is usually associated with Brandt, Richard, “Towards a Credible Form of Utilitarianism,” in Brody, B., ed., Moral Rules and Particular Circumstances (Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice-Hall, 1970)Google Scholar.

⁸ As many besides Pinker have noticed. See, e.g., Greene and Cohen, “Neuroscience Changes Nothing”; see also Dennett, Daniel, Elbow Room: The Varieties of Free Will Worth Wanting (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984)Google Scholar, where in the last chapter Dennett unwittingly adds cheap compatibilism to the more genuine form of compatibilism expressed in the earlier chapters of his well-known compatibilist tract.

⁹ Clemenceau's celebrated simile was that military justice stands to justice as military music stands to music.

¹⁰ Moore, Placing Blame, 155–58, 160–63.

¹¹ As Jack Smart, a trenchant but clear-headed act-utilitarian once put it, following a practice when it does not maximize utility to do so, is “blind rule-worship.” J. J .C. Smart, “Utilitarianism: For,” in Smart, J. J. C. and Williams, Bernard, Utilitarianism: For and Against (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. David Lyons has classically shown that indirect utilitarianisms like Pinker's collapse either into such blind rule-worship or into a direct (or “act”) utilitarianism. Lyons, David, Forms and Limits of Utilitarianism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹² Pinker, “Fear of Determinism,” 318.

¹³ Ibid.

¹⁴ Moore, Placing Blame, 101.

¹⁵ Mixed schemes are discussed ibid., 92–94.

¹⁶ Hart, H. L. A., Punishment and Responsibility (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968)Google Scholar.

¹⁷ I chart the place of moral desert in all of these schemes in Moore, Michael, “Four Reflections on Law and Morality,” William and Mary Law Review vol. 48 (2007), 1523–69, at 1553–68Google Scholar.

¹⁸ Locke, John, The Second Treatise of Government 25–31 (Gough, J. W., ed., Barnes and Noble, 1966) (originally published 1690)Google Scholar.

¹⁹ Nozick, Robert, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974)Google Scholar.

²⁰ Chisholm, Roderickreintroduced the term (which is conventionally capitalized to avoid confusing it with the less technical idea of intentional action) into modern discussions. See hisPerceiving: A Philosophical Study (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1957), 120–70Google Scholar. For an update, see Perry, John, “Intentionality (II),” in Guttenplan, S., ed., Blackwell's Companion to the Philosophy of Mind (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994), 386–94Google Scholar.

²¹ See, e.g., Cornman, James, “Intentionality and Intensionality,” Philosophical Quarterly vol. 12 (1962), 44–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Moore, Placing Blame, 372–84.

²² Brentano, Franz, Psychologie vom Empirischen Standpunkt (Leipzig, 1874)Google Scholar, a selection translated in Chisholm, R., ed., Realism and the Background of Phenomenology (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1960)Google Scholar: “Every mental phenomenon is characterized by what the scholastics of the Middle Ages called Intentional Inexistence of an object …”

²³ The basic motive for this “eliminativist-materialism” skepticism (based in philosophy rather than in scientific psychology) lies in the difficulty of individuating mental states with Intentional content in a way that any physical system could realize. See, e.g., Rorty, Richard, “The Brain as Hardware, Culture as Software,” Inquiry vol. 47 (2004): 231CrossRefGoogle Scholar: “Beliefs cannot be individuated in such a way as to correlate with neural states.” The idea is that propositional content (if that is what it is) takes into account features of the world in such individuation, and such features “can't be in the head.” See generally Greenwood, John, ed., The Future of Folk Psychology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991)Google Scholar.

²⁴ “[I]f commonsense intentional psychology were really to collapse, that would be, beyond comparison, the greatest intellectual catastrophe in the history of our species…” Fodor, Jerry, Psychosemantics: The Problem of Meaning in the Philosophy of Mind (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987), xiiGoogle Scholar.

²⁵ Plato, , The Republic, Book IV (Allen, R. E., trans., New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006)Google Scholar.

²⁶ Whether there are two or three distinct states involved in practical rationality has been the subject of contemporary debate. Compare Davidson, Donald, “Intention,” in his Essays on Actions and Events (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980)Google Scholar, with Bratman, Michael, Intention, Plans, and Practical Reason (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987)Google Scholar. For reasons explored in Moore, Michael, Act and Crime: The Implications of the Philosophy of Action for the Criminal Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), chap. 6Google Scholar, I favor Bratman's triad of distinct intentional states to Davidson's two.

²⁷ A good explication of Aristotle's practical syllogisms in light of the contemporary philosophy of action is Nussbaum, Martha's dissertation, done under David Cooper's supervision and published asAristotle's De Moto Animalum (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977)Google Scholar. See also Moore, Placing Blame, 604–5.

²⁸ On psychopaths, see Morse, Stephen, “Psychopathy and Criminal Responsibility,” Neuroethics 1 (2008), 205–12CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁹ Explored briefly by me in Moore, Law and Psychiatry, 108.

³⁰ Moore, Placing Blame, 127–38.

³¹ David Sachs nicely charted how Freud's theory of defense mechanisms presupposed hidden norms of proportionality of emotional response. Sachs, David, “On Freud's Doctrine of the Emotions,” in Wollheim, R., ed., Freud: A Collection of Critical Essays (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1974)Google Scholar.

³² Moore, Law and Psychiatry, 390–91; Moore, Placing Blame, 615–16.

³³ Usually termed the “causal theory of action,” a basic tenet of folk psychology. See Moore, Act and Crime; Moore, , “Renewed Questions About the Causal Theory of Action,” in Aguilar, J. and Buckareff, A., eds., Causing Human Action: New Perspectives on the Causal Theory of Action (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2010)Google Scholar. Jerry Fodor regards this as basic to the folk psychology: “If it isn't literally true that my wanting is causally responsible for my reaching … then practically everything that I believe about anything is false and it is the end of the world.” Fodor, Jerry, A Theory of Content and Other Essays (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990), 196Google Scholar.

³⁴ Moore, Placing Blame, 610–14.

³⁵ Field, G. C., “Is the Conception of the Unconscious of Value in Psychology?,” Mind, 31 (1922): 413–23, at 413–14CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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³⁷ Freud, Sigmund, The Ego and the Id, in Vol. 19 of The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Strachey, James, ed. (London: Hogarth Press 1953–1975), 18Google Scholar.

³⁸ Locke's doctrine of the continuity of consciousness is explored in Wiggins, David, “Locke, Butler, and the Stream of Consciousness: And Men as a Natural Kind,” in Rorty, A., ed., The Identities of Persons (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976)Google Scholar.

³⁹ Ownership of actions through conscious experience of agency is explored in Choudhury, Suparna and Blakemore, Sarah-Jayne, “Intentions, Actions, and the Self,” in Pockett, S., Banks, W., and Gallagher, S., eds., Does Consciousness Cause Behavior? (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 2006)Google Scholar.

⁴⁰ Dennett, Dan's James-inspired example inContents and Consciousness (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1969)Google Scholar.

⁴¹ I separate the three claims in Moore, Law and Psychiatry, 254–65.

⁴² For a discussion, see Rorty, Richard, “Incorrigibility as the Mark of the Mental,” Journal of Philosophy, 67 (1970): 399–424CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴³ Morse, Stephen J., “New Neuroscience, Old Problems,” in Garland, B., ed., Neuroscience and the Law: Brain, Mind, and the Scale of Justice (New York: Dana Press, 2004), 157–98Google Scholar.

⁴⁴ Moore, Placing Blame, 43–64.

⁴⁵ Greene and Cohen, “Neuroscience Changes Nothing,” 1776. It is a bit disingenuous of Greene and Cohen to interpret Morse as dealing only at the level of legal doctrine. One of Professor Morse's lifetime projects has been to show that there is no presupposition of free will in the morals and metaphysics that make sense of the legal doctrines we have. See, for example, most recently, Morse, , “Determinism and the Death of Folk Psychology: Two Challenges to Responsibility From Neuroscience,” Minnesota Journal of Law, Science, and Technology, 9 (2008): 1–35Google Scholar.

⁴⁶ The drive to Cartesian dualism from concerns about free will was classically charted in Ryle, Gilbert, The Concept of Mind (London: Hutcheson, 1949)Google Scholar. Not all libertarians take refuge in dualism. See Kane, Robert, The Significance of Free Will (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996)Google Scholar; Kane, , “Responsibility, Luck, and Chance,” Journal of Philosophy, 96 (1999): 217–40Google Scholar.

⁴⁷ Descartes, , The Passions of the Soul (New York: Hackett Publishing, 1989) (originally published 1649)Google Scholar.

⁴⁸ If the different plane of existence insulates mind from causal influences, that seemingly is purchased by a like inability of mind to do any causing.

⁴⁹ My own compatibilist views may be found in Moore, Placing Blame, chap. 12.

⁵⁰ See, e.g., Harman, Gilbert, “Moral Philosophy Meets Social Psychology,” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 99 (1999): 315–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar. A recent summary of the “situationism versus character” debate is Sarkissian, Hagop, “Minor Tweaks, Major Payoffs: The Problems and Promise of Situationism in Moral Philosophy,” Philosophers Imprint, 10 (2010): 1–15Google Scholar.

⁵¹ Pockett, Susan, Banks, William, and Gallagher, Shaun, “Introduction,” in Pockett, , Banks, , and Gallagher, , eds., Does Consciousness Cause Behavior? (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006), 1–4CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵² I discuss analytical reductionism (in ethics particularly, where it is associated with G. E. Moore), in Moore, Michael, “Legal Realty: A Naturalist Approach to Legal Ontology,” Law and Philosophy, 21 (2002): 619–705, at 665–69, reprinted in Michael Moore, Objectivity in Ethics and Law (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2004), 365–69Google Scholar.

⁵³ Ibid., 369–70.

⁵⁴ Ibid., 370–71.

⁵⁵ Ibid., 372–93.

⁵⁶ See Moore, Act and Crime; Moore, “Renewed Questions.”

⁵⁷ I am indebted to my MacArthur Foundation Law and Neuroscience Project Decisions and Intentions Working Group co-chair John Cacioppo of the University of Chicago for much of the information that immediately follows. See Cacioppo, and Moore, , “Decisions and Intentions Working Group,” Working Paper of the MacArthur Foundation Law and Neuroscience Project, Normal Decision-Making Research Network, January, 2008Google Scholar. See also Pockett, Susan, “The Neuroscience of Movement,” in Pockett, , Banks, , and Gallagher, , Does Consciousness Cause Behavior? (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006), 9–24CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁸ Sherrington's work is summarized briefly in Bennett, M. R. and Hacker, P. M. S., Philosophical Foundations of Neuroscience (Oxford: Blackwell, 2003), 41–42Google Scholar.

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⁶¹ Keller, A. I. and Heckhausen, H., “Readiness Potentials Preceding Spontaneous Motor Acts: Voluntary vs. Involuntary Control,” Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 76 (1990): 351–61CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

⁶² Haggard, Patrick, Cartledge, Peter, Dafydd, Meilyr, and Oakley, David, “Anomalous Control: When ‘Free-Will’ Is Not Conscious,” Consciousness and Cognition, 13 (2004): 646–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁶⁴ Haynes, John-Dylan, Sakai, Katsuyuki, Rees, Geraint, Gilbert, Sam, Frith, Chris, and Passingham, Richard, “Reading Hidden Intentions in the Brain,” Current Biology, 17 (2007): 323–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Soon, Chun Siong, Brass, Marcel, Heinze, Hans-Jochen, and Haynes, John-Dylan, “Unconscious Determinants of Free Decisions in the Human Brain,” Nature Neuroscience, 11 (2008): 543–45CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

⁶⁵ Anderson, R. A. and Buneo, C. A., “Intentional Maps in Posterior Parietal Cortex,” Annual Review of Neuroscience, 25 (2002): 189–220CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Desmurget, Michael, Reilly, Karen, Richard, Nathalie, Szathmari, Alexandru, Mottolese, Carmine, and Sirigu, Angela, “Movement Intention After Parietal Cortex Stimulations in Humans,” Science, 324 (2009): 811–13CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶⁶ Haggard, Patrick, “Conscious Intention and Motor Cognition,” TRENDS in Cognitive Science, 9 (2005): 290–95; at 295CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed:

⁶⁷ Michael Gazzaniga quotes Roger Sperry thusly:

Gazzaniga, , Human: The Science Behind What Makes Us Unique (New York: Harper Collins, 2008), 246Google Scholar.

⁶⁸ Gazzaniga, quoted in Monastersky, Richard, “Religion on the Brain,” Chronicle of Higher Education, May 26, 2006, A–15Google Scholar. Gazzaniga can't claim 100 percent adherence to reductionism because of outliers within neuroscience like Sir John Eccles. See Eccles, , “The Initiation of Voluntary Movements;” Eccles, and Popper, , How the Self Controls Its Brain (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1994)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶⁹ Consider, for example, the large promissory notes issued in this reductionist view of intentions:

⁷⁰ Greene and Cohen, “Neuroscience Changes Nothing,” 1781.

⁷¹ Susan Pockett, “Introduction,” 1–4.

⁷² Libet, B., Gleason, C. A., Wright, E. W., and Pearl, D. K., “Time of Conscious Intention to Act in Relation to Onset of Cerebral Activities (Readiness Potential); The Unconscious Initiation of a Freely Voluntary Act,” Brain, 106 (1983): 623–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar. These findings are restated in Libet, , “Unconscious Cerebral Initiative and the Role of Conscious Will in Voluntary Action,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 8 (1985): 529–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷³ Haggard, Patrick, Newman, Chris, and Magno, Elena, “On The Perceived Time of Voluntary Actions,” British Journal of Psychology, 90 (1999): 291–303, at 291CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

⁷⁴ Banks, William, “Does Consciousness Cause Misbehavior?,” in Pockett, , Banks, , and Gallagher, , eds., Does Consciousness Cause Behavior?” (Cambridge: MA: MIT Press, 2006), 235–56Google Scholar.

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⁷⁶ Passingham and Lau, “Free Choice and the Human Brain.”

⁷⁷ Libet, “Unconscious Cerebral Initiative,” at 532.

⁷⁸ Passingham and Lau, “Free Choice and the Human Brain,” 55.

⁷⁹ Much of the peer commentary in the 1985 symposium in Behavioral and Brain Sciences was on this topic. See, e.g., Latte, Richard, “Consciousness as an Experimental Variable: Problems of Definition, Practice, and Interpretation,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 8 (1985): 545–46CrossRefGoogle Scholar; James Ringo, “Timing Volition: Questions of What and When About W,” ibid., 550–51. See also Haggard, Patrick, Clark, Sam, and Kalogeras, Jeri, “Voluntary Action and Conscious Awareness,” Nature Neuroscience, 5 (2002): 382–85CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Haggard, Patrick and Clark, Sam, “Intentional Action: Conscious Experience and Neural Prediction,” Consciousness and Cognition, 12 (2003): 695–707CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed. And the debate continues. Banks, William and Isham, Eve, “We Infer Rather Than Perceive the Moment We Decided to Act,” Psychological Science, 20 (2009): 17–21CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

⁸⁰ Haggard, Patrick and Elmer, Martin, “On the Relation Between Brain Potentials and the Awareness of Voluntary Movements,” Experimental Brain Research, 126 (1999): 128–33CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

⁸¹ Passingham and Lau, “Free Choice and the Human Brain,” 55–56.

⁸² Haggard, Cartledge, Dafydd, and Oakley, “Anomalous Control.”

⁸³ Fried, Katz, et al., “Functional Organization.”

⁸⁴ This was when subjects were told to attend to their intention to move. Lau, H. C., Rogers, R. D., Haggard, P., and Passingham, R. E., “Attention to Intention,” Science, 303 (2004): 1208–10CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

⁸⁵ Haynes, et al., “Reading Hidden Intentions in the Brain.”

⁸⁶ Haynes, et al., “Unconsciousness Determinants of Free Decision.”

⁸⁷ Nisbett, R. E. and Wilson, T. D., “Telling More Than We Can Know: Verbal Reports on Mental Processes,” Psychological Review, 84 (1977): 231–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸⁸ Bargh helpfully summarizes into ten categories a lifetime of his research on what he has called “the automaticity of everyday life,” (Bargh, , “The Automaticity of Everyday Life,” in Wyer, R. S., ed., Advances in Social Cognition, 10 (1997): 1–61Google Scholar), in his “Free Will Is Un-natural,” in Baer, J., Kaufman, J., and Baumeister, R., eds., Are We Free?: Psychology and Free Will (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 128–54, esp. at 136–49CrossRefGoogle Scholar. These include evidence of “unconscious goal pursuit over time,” “the absence of ability to accurately report on one's intentions,” “the scarcity of conscious self-regulatory capacity,” “the unconscious mimicry of others' behavior,” and other items. Ibid., 148.

⁸⁹ Ibid., 138.

⁹⁰ Ibid.

⁹¹ Wegner, Daniel, The Illusion of Conscious Will (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002)Google Scholar.

⁹² In his reply to the open peer commentary on his book, Wegner acknowledges that “people often read much more into ICW than is there,” and that part of the fault for that lies with Wegner's choice of a “fighting” title. Wegner, , “Author's Response,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 27 (2004): 679–88, at 679, 682Google Scholar.

⁹³ Ibid., 682.

⁹⁴ Ibid., 679.

⁹⁵ Wegner, The Illusion of Conscious Will, 96.

⁹⁶ Ibid., 65

⁹⁷ Ibid., 4.

⁹⁸ Ibid., 6.

⁹⁹ Ibid., 7–8, 100–102.

¹⁰⁰ Ibid., 110.

¹⁰¹ Ibid., 103–108.

¹⁰² Ibid., 113–16.

¹⁰³ Ibid., 116–20.

¹⁰⁴ Ibid., 120–30.

¹⁰⁵ Ibid., 125.

¹⁰⁶ Ibid., 130.

¹⁰⁷ Ibid., 100

¹⁰⁸ On Freudian examples and analysis of unconscious actions, see Moore, Law and Psychiatry, 311–22.

¹⁰⁹ Wegner, The Illusion of Conscious Will, 130.

¹¹⁰ Ibid., 143–44.

¹¹¹ Ibid., 8.

¹¹² Ibid., 80.

¹¹³ Ibid., 10.

¹¹⁴ Ibid., 74–78.

¹¹⁵ Ibid., 181–84.

¹¹⁶ Ibid., 149–51.

¹¹⁷ Ibid., 10–11.

¹¹⁸ Crick, Francis, The Astonishing Hypothesis (New York: Scribrer's, 1994), 3Google Scholar.

¹¹⁹ Richard Dawkins, “Let's All Stop Beating Basil's Car.” Dan Dennett recounts how Dawkins later came to regret his inference that retributivism and moral responsibility disappear with the reduction of us to machines. Dennett, , “Some Observations on the Psychology of Thinking About Free Will,” in Baer, J., Kaufman, J., and Baumeister, R., Are We Free? Psychology and Free Will (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 253Google Scholar.

¹²⁰ Alluded to briefly above, text at nn. 22–24, supra. Churchland, Patriciais a standard example of an eliminative materialist in philosophy. See herNeurophilosophy: Toward a Unfied Science of the Mind/Brain (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1986)Google Scholar.

¹²¹ Discussed in Moore, Law and Psychiatry, 36–37.

¹²² Dennett, Daniel, Brainstorms (Montgomery, Vt.: Bradford Books, 1978), 63Google Scholar.

¹²³ Quine, W. W. O., Ontological Relativity and Other Essays (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969), 100Google Scholar (“many of our causal remarks in the ‘there are’ form would want dusting up when our thoughts turn seriously ontological”).

¹²⁴ Moore, Michael, “Legal Reality: A Naturalist Approach to Legal Ontology,” Law and Philosophy, 21 (2002): 619–705, at 649–53, reprinted in Objectivity in Ethics and Law: Essays in Moral and Legal Ontology (Aldershot, U.K.: Ashgate, 2004, 349–53Google Scholar.

¹²⁵ Kripke, Saul, Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982), 66–68Google Scholar.

¹²⁶ Greene and Cohen, “Neuroscience Changes Nothing,” 1781.

¹²⁷ Notice that the text phrases the matter comparatively, that is, that indeterministic chance gives us no more control, etc., than does deterministic causation, It may well be that one can imagine an indeterminism that is compatible with there being choice, effort, control, and therefore responsibility. See Kane, Robert, The Significance of Free Will (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), chap. 8Google Scholar. But such compatibility will have no leg up on a like compatibility of deterministic causation with that same choice, effort, control, and therefore responsibility.

¹²⁸ Clark, Thomas, “Fear of Mechanism,” Journal of Consciousness Studies, 6 (1999): 279–93, reprinted in B. Libet, A. Freeman, and K. Sutherland, eds., The Volitional Brain: Towards a Neuroscience of Free Will (Exeter, U.K.: Imprint Academic, 2004), 279–93, at 281Google Scholar.

¹²⁹ Pockett, “Introduction,” 5.

¹³⁰ Haggard, Patrick and Libet, Benjamin, “Conscious Intention and Brain Activity,” Journal of Consciousness Studies, 8 (2001): 47–63, at 47–48Google Scholar.

¹³¹ Shariff, Azim, Schooler, Jonathan, and Vohs, Kathleen, “The Hazards of Claiming to Have Solved the Hard Problem of Free Will,” in Baer, J., Kaufman, J., and Baumeister, R., eds., Are We Free?: Psychology and Free Will (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 186Google Scholar.

¹³² Libet, Benjamin, “Do We Have Free Will?,” Journal of Consciousness Studies, 6 (1999): pp. 47–57, reprinted in Benjamin Libet, Anthony Freeman, and Keith Sutherland, eds., The Volitional Brain: Towards a Neuroscience of Free Will (UK: Imprint Academic, 2004), 52Google Scholar.

¹³³ Libet, “Unconscious Cerebral Initiative,” 536–38.

¹³⁴ Libet, “Do We Have Free Will?,” 52–53.

¹³⁵ E.g., Brass, Marcel and Haggard, Patrick, “To Do or Not to Do: The Neural Signature of Self-Control,” Journal of Neuroscience, 27 (2007): 9141–9145, at 9144CrossRefGoogle Scholar:

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¹³⁷ Roediger, Henry, Goode, Michael, Zaromb, Franklin, “Free Will and the Control of Action,” in Baer, J., Kaufman, J., and Baumeister, R., eds., Are We Free?: Psychology and Free Will (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 208Google Scholar.

¹³⁸ Daniel Wegner, “Self is Magic,” in J. Baer, et al., Are We Free?, 226.

¹³⁹ On causal influence going across unchanging states as well as chains of events, see Moore, Michael, “The Nature of Singularist Theories of Causation,” The Monist, 92 (2009): 3–23, reprinted in Moore, Causation and Responsibility (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 500–501, 510CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁴⁰ As Freud is reported to have said (at an awards ceremony in 1927 celebrating his “discovery of the unconscious”), “My only claim to discovery is by being ill-read.” On Freud's non-psychoanalytic antecedents, see Moore, Law and Psychiatry, 126–34, 250–51, 265, 327.

¹⁴¹ Ibid., 126–42, 249–80, 322–37.

¹⁴² Sigmund Freud, Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, in the Standard Edition, Vol. 16, 285.

¹⁴³ Moore, Law and Psychiatry, 128, 133, 256, 274–75.

¹⁴⁴ Dennett, Content and Consciousness, 90–96. The role of consciousness (in the sense of privileged access) is also emphasized by Choudhury, Suparna and Blakemore, Sarah-Jayne, “Intentions, Actions, and the Self,” in Pockett, S., Banks, W., and Gallagher, S., eds., Does Consciousness Cause Behavior? (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006), 48–49Google Scholar as crucial to ownership of actions and self-construction:

¹⁴⁵ Pockett, “The Neuroscience of Movement,” 19–21.

¹⁴⁶ Wegner gets the universal claim only by separating what is referred to by “will” into the phenomenal (or conscious) will, and the empirical will. If the claim is that the conscious will (i.e., phenomenology alone, with no physical realization) never causes movement, all can agree (for this would be a dualism). But Wegner's data on what he calls the illusion of control cases is much more interesting than this; the data suggest that in such cases, willing as such (the deep reference being to its essentially physical nature) does not cause the behavior. The only point in the text is that this more interesting point is also limited to the data explored by Wegner, viz, the illusion of control cases.

¹⁴⁷ As Wegner notices in his discussion of Libet's findings. Wegner, Illusion of Conscious Will, 49–55; Wegner, “Author's Resopnse,”684: “The idea of ICW is not dependent on Libet's finding … this is because ICW … is not about whether thought causes action. It is about whether the experience of conscious will reflects such causation.”

¹⁴⁸ Wegner, “Self Is Magic,” 233.

¹⁴⁹ Freud, Sigmund, “The Unconscious,” Collected Papers, IV, Strachey, J., ed. (New York: Basic Books, 1959), 102Google Scholar.

¹⁵⁰ Moore, Law and Psychiatry, 142–52.

¹⁵¹ Libet, “Unconscious Cerebral Initiative,” 536.

¹⁵² Haynes, “Unconscious Determinants of Free Decisions,” 543.

¹⁵³ Ibid., 545. Bennett and Hacker, Philosophical Foundations of Neuroscience, 68–72, collect numerous other examples of neuroscientific animizing of the brain.

¹⁵⁴ David Hume, section 8.20 of An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, “Liberty and Necessity.”

¹⁵⁵ Sturgeon, Nicholas, “What Difference Does It Make Whether Moral Realism Is True?,” Southern Journal of Philosophy, 24 (1986): Supplement, 115–41, at 136 n.1CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁵⁶ Greene and Cohen, “Neuroscience Changes Nothing,”

¹⁵⁷ De Baigard, Felipe, Mandelbaum, Eric, and Ripley, Davidhave a go at testing these sociological speculations of Greene and Cohen. See their “Responsibility and the Brain Sciences,” Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, Springer Science on-line publishing, 24 December 2008Google Scholar.

¹⁵⁸ Danto, Arthur, “Consciousness and Motor Control,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 8 (1985), 540–41CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁵⁹ The beginnings of my answers to some of these challenges may be found in Moore, , “Libet's Challenge(s) to Responsible Agency,” in Sinnott-Armstrong, Walter and Nadel, Lynn, eds., Conscious Will and Responsibility (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 207–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and in lecture form, at http://www.cas.illinois.edu/Events/ViewPublicEvent.aspx?Guid=8A6A6DD2-699A-478F-8651-C8C2C6D1F389, (Nineteenth Annual Center for Advanced Study Lecture, September, 2009), and http://www/nmc.uni-freiburg.de/video/Videoaufzeichnungen/rechtswissenschaften/recht-ws-2009-10, (Lecture to the Institute for Legal Philosophy and Public Affairs, Albert-Ludwigs University, Freiburg-im-Breisgau, Germany, March, 2010). My colleagues Al Mele, Adina Roskies, and Stephen Morse have also done recent work that tracks some of these concerns. See Mele, Alfred, Free Will and Luck (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mele, Alfred, Effective Intentions: The Power of Conscious Will (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Roskies, Adina, “Neuroscientific Challenges to Free Will and Responsibility,” Trends in Cognitive Science, vol. 10, no. 9 (2006), www.sciencedirect.comCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Morse, Stephen, “Determinism and the Death of Folk Psychology: Two Challenges to Responsibility from Neuroscience,” Minnesota Journal of Law, Science, and Technology, 9 (2008): 1–35Google Scholar.