¹ By civil society in this context, I mean various groups and movements which were established outside the structure and independent of the Soviet-type system. I will elaborate on this point in the last section of this essay. For different conceptual and ideological approaches to the phenomenon of the reemergence of civil society in Eastern Europe, see Szelenyi, Ivan, “Socialist Opposition: Dilemmas and Prospects,” ed. Tokes, Rudolf L., Opposition in Eastern Europe (London: Macmillan, 1979), pp. 187–208CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Arato, Andrew,” Civil Society Against the State: Poland 1980–81,” Telos, vol. 50 (1981), pp. 23–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rau, Zbigniew, “Some Thoughts on Civil Society in Eastern Europe and the Lockean Contractarian Approach,” Political Studies, XXXV (1987), pp. 573–92CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Pelczynski, Zbigniew A., “Solidarity and ‘The Rebirth of Civil Society’ in Poland 1976–81,” ed. John, Keane, Civil Society and the State (London: Verso, 1988), pp. 361–80.Google Scholar For attempts at an analysis of civil society in the USSR, see Lapidus, Gail W., “State and Society: Toward Emergence of Civil Society in Russia,” ed. Seweryn, Bialer, Politics, Society, and Nationality inside Gorbachev's Russia (Westview Press: Boulder & London, 1989), pp. 121–47Google Scholar, and Gray, John, “Totalitarianism, Reform, and Civil Society,” ed. Ellen, Frankel Paul, Totalitarianism at the Crossroads (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1990).Google Scholar See also Sakwa, Richard, The State and Civil Society in the USSR (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming).Google Scholar For a discussion of civil society as the force overcoming the Marxist-Leninist system, see Zbigniew Rau, “Four Stages of One Path Out of Socialism,” in Totalitarianism at the Crossroads.

² Compare the argument structure of Stevenson, Leslie, Seven Theories of Human Nature (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974).Google Scholar

³ I owe the following discussion to Duncan, Graeme “Political Theory and Human Nature,” ed. Ian, Forbes and Steve, Smith, Politics and Human Nature (London: Frances Printer, 1983), pp. 5–19.Google Scholar

⁴ Genesis 1:26.

⁵ Hobbes, Thomas, Leviathan, ed. Macpherson, C.B. (London: Penguin Books, 1968)Google Scholar, ch. XIII.

⁶ Hobbes, Leviathan, ch. XVIII.

⁷ Karl Marx: Selected Writings in Sociology and Social Philosophy, ed. Bottomore, T.B. (London: Penguin Books, 1963), p. 83.Google Scholar I refer to Marx as the representative of these theories, since I will go on analyzing Marxism-Leninism as the theory of potential human nature which was implemented in political practice. Of course, Marx was not the only representative of such theories; Rousseau before him and Marcuse after also fit into this rubric.

⁸ Karl Marx: Selected Writings, p. 177.

⁹ ibid., p. 249.

¹⁰ For a very similar argument structure, see Duncan, “Political Theory and Human Nature,” p. 15.Google Scholar I extend his argument, substituting my own terminology (‘normative’, ‘analytical’, ‘empirical’) for his (‘moral’, ‘logical’, ‘sociological’).

¹¹ See Heller, Mikhail, Cogs in the Wheel: The Formation of Soviet Man (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1988), p. 7.Google Scholar Heller's book offers the best possible introduction to this subject.

¹² See Schapiro, Leonard, “Lenin's Intellectual Formation and the Russian Revolutionary Background,” in Russian Studies, ed. Ellen, Dahrendorf (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1986), pp. 188–252.Google Scholar

¹³ Quoted in Schapiro, , “Lenin's Intellectual Formation,” p. 196.Google ScholarRéglementation, a French term, means “strict regulation by system.”

¹⁴ Quoted in Schapiro, , “Lenin's Intellectual Formation,” p. 241.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Bukharin, N. and Preobrazhensky, E., The ABCs of Communism (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1969), p. 113.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Krupskaia, Nadezhda, Pedagogicheskie sochineniia v desati tomach. (Moscow, 1959), vol. VII, p. 12.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Lenin, V.I., State and Revolution (New York: International Publishers, 1932), p. 74.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Lenin, V.I., Selected Works (London: Lawrence & Wishart Ltd., 1946), vol. 9, p. 148.Google Scholar

¹⁹ In a now classic experiment, Pavlov trained a hungry dog to salivate at the sound of a bell, which had previously been associated with the sight of food. He developed a similar conceptual approach, emphasizing the importance of conditioning, in his pioneering studies relating human behavior to the nervous system. See Encyclopedia Britannica 1990, vol. 9, p. 215.

²⁰ I owe the discussion of this issue to Jovorsky, David, “The Construction of the Stalinist Psyche,” ed. Sheila, Fitzpatrick, Cultural Revolution in Russia, 1928–1931 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984), pp. 105–28Google Scholar, esp. 120–27.

²¹ Jovorsky, , “The Construction of the Stalinist Psyche,” pp. 124–25.Google Scholar Compare Brozek, Jozeph and Slobin, Dan, Psychology in the USSR: An Historical Perspective (New York: White Plains, 1972).Google Scholar

²² This phrase originally stems from Bukharin's reply to Pavlov's criticism of Marxism in Krasnaia Nov (1924), nos. 1 and 2, quoted by Jovorsky, , “The Construction of the Stalinist Psyche,” p. 125.Google Scholar

²³ Quoted by Sapir, I.D., Vysshaia nervnaia deiatel ‘nost’ cheloveka (Moscow, 1925), p. 156.Google Scholar I owe this quotation to Jovorsky, , “The Construction of the Stalinist Psyche,” p. 125.Google Scholar

²⁴ The files of the Party headquarters in Smolensk concerning the socioeconomic and political life of the Smolensk guberiya and Smolensk oblast from 1917 to 1938. During the Nazi occupation, German intelligence discovered the collection and brought it to Germany for examination. At the end of the war, it fell into American hands. For discussion of the collection's contents see Faison, Merle, Smolensk under Soviet Rule (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1958).Google Scholar

²⁵ Zinoviev, Alexander, Homo Sovieticus (Boston, New York: The Atlantic Monthly Press, 1985), p. 197.Google Scholar

²⁶ Zinoviev, Alexander, The Reality of Communism (London: Victor Gollancz Ltd, 1984), p. 125.Google Scholar

²⁷ Zinoviev, , Homo Sovieticus, p. 11.Google Scholar

²⁸ Zinoviev, , The Reality of Communism, p. 129.Google Scholar

²⁹ ibid., p. 47.

³⁰ Milosz, Czeslaw, Native Realm (London, Manchester: Sidgewick and Jackson/Carcanet New Press, 1981), p. 281.Google Scholar

³¹ Milosz, Czeslaw, The Captive Mind (New York: Vintage Books, 1953), p. 6.Google Scholar

³² Milosz, Czeslaw, The Captive Mind (New York: Vintage Books, 1953), p. 6, 12.Google Scholar

³³ ibid., p. 11.

³⁴ ibid., p. 11.

³⁵ ibid., p. 3–23.

³⁶ ibid., p. 54.

³⁷ ibid., p. 54–57.

³⁸ ibid., p. 53.

³⁹ Milosz, Czeslaw, The Captive Mind (New York: Vintage Books, 1953), p. 52.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ ibid., p. 73.

⁴¹ Commenting on this issue, Andrzej Walicki writes: “The Captive Mind… is a book about surrendering to ‘mental captivity’, not about defending oneself against it,” Andrzej Walicki, “The ‘Captive Mind’ Revisited: Intellectuals and the Communist Totalitarianism in Poland,” in Totalitarianism at the Crossroads, p. 67.

⁴² Much of the material in the following discussion is taken from my paper, “The State of Enslavement: The East European Substitute for the State of Nature” forthcoming, in Political Studies.

⁴³ Havel, Vaclav, “The Power of the Powerless,” ed. John, Keane, The Power of the Powerless: Citizens against the State in Central Europe (New York: M.E. Share Inc., 1985), p. 31.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ I owe this discussion to Wlodzimierz Brus’ illuminating outline of the Soviet and East European economies in the 1960s and 1970s; see his “‘Normalization’ Processes in Soviet-dominated Central Europe,” ed. Zdenek, Mlynar, Relative Stabilization of the Soviet Systems in the 1970s, Study No. 2 (Koln, 1983).Google Scholar

⁴⁵ For a discussion of bravery and fear understood as psychological categories and courage and cowardice treated as moral categories, and their application in the analysis of the position of the individual in the Marxist-Leninist system, see Kusy, Miroslav, “On Civic Courage,” International Journal of Politics, vol. ix, 1 (Spring 1981), pp. 39–51.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ Havel, , The Power of the Powerless, p. 31.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ ibid., p. 36.

⁴⁸ ibid., p. 25.

⁴⁹ Simecka, Milan, The Restoration of Order (London: Verso, 1984), p. 144.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Havel, , The Power of the Powerless, p. 38.Google Scholar

⁵¹ Cerny, Vaclav, “On the Question of Chartism,” in The Power of the Powerless: Citizens against the State in Central Europe, p. 131.Google Scholar

⁵² Havel, , The Power of the Powerless, p. 45.Google Scholar

⁵³ Havel, , The Power of the Powerless, p. 100.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ Simecka, Milan, “Community of Fear,” International Journal of Politics, vol. ix, 1 (Spring 1981), p. 34.Google Scholar

⁵⁵ Havel, , The Power of the Powerless, pp. 44–45.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ See Benda, Jan, “Parallel Polis,” ed. Skilling, H. Gordon, Charter 77 and Human Rights in Czechoslovakia (London: Allen & Unwin, 1981).Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Tesar, Jan, “Totalitarian Dictatorships as a Phenomenon of the Twentieth Century and the Possibilities of Overcoming Them,” International Journal of Politics, vol. ix, 1 (Spring 1981), p. 99.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ Trojan, S.J., “In Defense of Politics,” International Journal of Politics, vol. ix, 1 (Spring 1981), p. 73.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ “Ile jest zdobyczy,” Polityka (February 10, 1990).