1 Gilbert, Alan, “Moral Realism, Individuality and Justice in War,” Political Theory vol. 15 (Feb. 1986)Google Scholar; Lipset, Seymour M., Political Man (New York: Doubleday, 1963), p. 64Google Scholar; Schumpeter, Joseph, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (New York: Harper and Row, 1950).Google Scholar

2 I contrast theories of democracy and argue for the plausibility of a Marxian view in an accompanying paper to this one, “Democracy and the Recognition of Persons,” unpublished. See also my “The Storming of Heaven: Capital and Marx's Politics,” Pennock, J. Roland, ed., Marxism Today, Nomos vol. xxvi (New York: New York University Press, 1984)Google Scholar, section 5.

3 Rawls, John, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 19–20, 506–508Google Scholar; Putnam, Hilary, Reason, Truth and History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, ch. 5.

4 Engels, Friedrich, Herr Eugels Dühring's Revolution in Science (New York: International Publishers, 1966), pp. 105, 117.Google Scholar For an account of Marx's moral realism, see Gilbert, Alan, “An ambiguity in Marx's and Engel's Account of Justice and Equality,” The American Political Science Review, vol. 76 (June 1982)CrossRefGoogle Scholar and “Marx's Moral Realism: Eudaimonism and Moral Progress,” James, Farr and Terence, Ball, eds., After Marx (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984).Google Scholar

5 Frances Fox Piven and Cloward, Richard, Poor People's Movements (New York: Pantheon, 1977).Google Scholar

6 Lindblom, Charles, Politics and Markets (New York: Basic Books, 1977), p. 356.Google Scholar

7 Mill, John Stuart, On Liberty, Representative Government, The Subjection of Women (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1948), pp. 281–290.Google Scholar Rawls, op. cit., pp. 232–233.

8 Marx, Karl, Capital (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1957), vol. 1, p. 764Google Scholar; Gilbert, Alan, “Historical Theory and the Structure of Moral Argument in Marx,” Political Theory, vol. 9 (May 1981)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, sections 3–5.

9 Duncan, Graeme, “The Marxist Theory of the State,”Google Scholar and Lukes, Steven, “Marxism, Morality and Justice,”Google ScholarParkinson, G. H. R., ed., Marx and Marxisms (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), pp. 138–139, 204.Google Scholar

10 Marx, Karl and Engels, Friedrich, The German Ideology (New York: International Publishers, 1980), p. 104.Google Scholar

11 Gilbert, op. cit., (1981), section 4; see also Gilbert, Alan, “Marx on Internationalism and War,” Philosophy and Public Affairs, vol. 7 (June 1978)Google Scholar, for a discussion of the English Workers' deliberations about abolitionism. , Marx, Capital, vol. 1, pp. 11, 14, 20, 59, 132, 341.Google Scholar

12 Cohen, G. A., “Reconsidering Historical Materialism,” Pennock, ed., op. cit., (1984).Google Scholar Cohen neglects Marx's Aristotelian conception of human nature and mistakenly attributes to him a mechanical materialist, narrowly biological view of human personality as a collection of capacities and talents. Marx rightly retained this Aristotelian conception after his adoption of Darwin's theory for other social animals. Gilbert, “Marx's Moral Realism,” Farr, ed., op. cit., (1984); Elster, Jon, Ulysses and the Sirens (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), pp. 21, 105–106.Google Scholar

13 Hegel, G. W. F., Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts (Stuttgart: Philipp Reclam, 1970), pp. 75–103.Google Scholar

14 Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, 1166a1–b29.

15 Kohut, Heinz, The Restoration of the Self (New York: International Universities Press, 1977), pp. 119–21Google Scholar, and Kohut, HeinzHow Does Analysis Cure? (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1984), pp. 26–28, 44CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Guntrip, Harry, Psychoanalytic Theory, Therapy, and the Self (New York: Basic Books, 1973)Google Scholar; Miller, Alice, The Drama of the Gifted Child (New York: Basic Books, 1981)Google Scholar; Taylor, Charles, “What is Human Agency,” Theodore, Mischel, ed., The Self (Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield, 1977), pp. 133–135.Google Scholar

16 Gilligan, Carol, In a Different Voice (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982).Google ScholarMiller, Jean Baker, Toward a New Psychology of Women (Cambridge, MA: Beacon Press, 1966).Google ScholarRubin, Lillian Breslow, Worlds of Pain (New York: Basic Books, 1976).Google ScholarSennett, Richard, The Hidden Injuries of Class.Google Scholar

17 Levine, David P., Needs, Rights and the MarketGoogle Scholar (unpublished), ch. 1. Elster, in “Exploitation, Freedom and Justice,” Pennock, ed., op. cit., (1984), pp. 298–299, worries that many individuals might have preferences for resource-expensive goods; their demands might conflict with communist equality. Either Aristotle's or Levine's theory of objective human goods undercuts the notion that such needs would be a frequent, let alone overwhelming component of individuality.

18 Levine's theory; even more than Cohen's initial presentation of Marxian communism as the abolition of social roles in Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defense (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978), pp. 129–133, overemphasizes the abolition of (harmful) “social” divisions. It fails to stress sufficiently the care and energy involved in healthy social connectedness.

19 Gilbert, “Marx's Moral Realism,” Farr, ed., op. cit., (1984); , Marx and , Engels, Writings on the Paris Commune, trans. Hal Draper (New York: Monthly Review, 1971), p. 153Google Scholar; , Marx, Theories of Surplus Value (New York: International Publishers, 1952), p. 186.Google Scholar

20 Levine, op. cit., conclusion; Elster, in Pennock, op. cit., 298–299. I leave aside the forging and repair of basic means of production for social wealth which, in a planned economy, are also not governed mainly by a market.

21 Hayek, F. A., “The Use of Knowledge in Society,” American Economic Review, vol. 35 (Sept. 1945).Google Scholar

22 On conflicts of goods, see Alan Gilbert, op. cit., Ball and Farr, eds. (1984).

23 Marx, Karl and Engels, Friedrich, Selected Works (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1962), vol. 2, p. 24.Google Scholar

24 In “Marx on Morality and Justice,” Parkinson, ed., op. cit., Lukes rightly sees communist “Justice” as beyond rules concerning distribution, but misses the dialectical retention of fundamental rules preserving life and the mutual recognition of persons. These extensions of previous social and political achievements partly explain what Lenin referred to as the long familiar “elementary social rules” which would be more easily observed in communism; Lenin, Selected Works, 2:373. Contrary to Lukes, the ends of communism and the standards justifying revolutionary action in “prehistory” are not rigidly separated. On a dialectical view, how could definite aims concerning the human good license their utter violation in “prehistory?” Lukes's explanation of the putatively “beyond morality” character of Marxian theory of the good – its beneficent transcendance of the conflicts of scarcity coupled with an alleged moral agnosticism toward such conflicts – thus mirrors the self-refuting aspects of relativist Marxian metaethics which he otherwise astutely criticizes.

25 Cohen, in Pennock, ed., op. cit., p. 246.

26 Tsetung, Mao, A Critique of Soviet Economics (New York: Monthly Review, 1977), p. 83.Google Scholar

27 Gilbert, Alan, “Democracy and the Recognition of Persons,”Google Scholar unpublished.

28 Draper, op. cit., pp. 154–155.

29 These concessions lead to the perpetuation of what Roemer has called status exploitation in socialism. He attempts to justify some of this inequality with a game–theoretic argument as “necessary socialist exploitation.” Since, on his account, there are no direct beneficiaries of “exploitation,” the latter characterization is puzzling. More importantly, Roemer ignores the impact of such differentials on the fundamental issue of who controls the state and the possibility of broader systemic harms to workers arising out of socialist inequalities. He thus criticizes the law of value to clear away misconceptions which hinder the development of current socialist regimes. See the useful discussion in , Roemer, A General Theory of Exploitation and Class (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982), pp. 248–249Google Scholar; and “Should Marxists Be Interested in Exploitation?,” Philosophy and Public Affairs, vol. 14 (Winter 1985), p. 64. This argument questions the putative necessity of socialist “exploitation” and challenges the law of value, based on an explicit conception of communism as social individuality.

30 Adelman, Jonathan, “The Formative Influence of the Civil Wars,” Armed Forces and Society, vol. 5 (November 1978)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; , Gilbert, Marx's Politics Communists and Citizens (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1981)Google Scholar, ch. 10–11.

31 Mao, op. cit., p. 85.

32 Sweezy, Paul and Bettelheim, Charles, On the Transition to Socialism (New York: Monthly Review, 1971), p. 74.Google Scholar

33 Shirokov, M., ed., Textbook of Marxist Philosophy (Moscow: Leningrad Institute of Philosophy, 1937), p. 167.Google Scholar

34 Mao, op. cit., p. 79.

33 Shirokov, M., ed., Textbook of Marxist Philosophy (Moscow: Leningrad Institute of Philosophy, 1937), p. 167.Google Scholar

34 Mao, op. cit., p. 79.

35 Polan, A. J., Lenin and the End of Politics (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984), pp. 125–128, 61–68.Google Scholar

36 , Mao, Selected Works (Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1965), vol. 3, p. 119.Google Scholar

37 Hinton, William, Fanshen (New York: Vintage, 1966).Google Scholar

38 Chesneaux, Jean, China (New York: Pantheon, 1979), pp. 221, 169.Google Scholar

39 Mao, Critique, p. 112.

40 Polan, op. cit., pp. 93–94.

41 One needs to distinguish revolutionary aspects of the cultural revolution from xenophobic ones.

42 Meisner, Maurice, Mao's China (New York: MacMillan, 1977), pp. 327, 321–322Google Scholar; Bettelheim, Charles, “The Great Leap Backward” in Bettelheim and Neil Burton, China Since Mao (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1978), pp. 100–107.Google Scholar

43 , Marx, Selected Works in One Volume (New York: International Publishers, 1974), p. 324.Google Scholar

44 Chorover, Stephan L., From Genesis to Genocide (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1975)Google Scholar, Chapters 3–5; Huntington, Samuel P., “The Democratic Distemper,” Huntington, Samuel P., Michel, Crozier, and Joji, Watanuki, eds., The Crisis of Democracy (New York: New York University Press, 1975).Google Scholar

45 Gilbert, “Historical Theory,” 1981.