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³ Although I believe my argument could be extended to other countries, this essay is restricted to Canada and the United States.

⁴ See Singer, Joseph William, “Sovereignty and Property,” Northwestern University Law Review, vol. 86, no. 1 (1991), pp. 1–56Google Scholar; Wilkinson, Charles, “Native Sovereignty in the United States: Developments during the Modern Era,” in Aboriginal Sell-Determination, ed. Cassidy, Frank (Halifax: Institute for Research on Public Policy, 1991), pp. 219–32Google Scholar; Slattery, Brian, “Understanding Aboriginal Rights,” Canadian Bar Review, vol. 66, no. 1 (1987), pp. 727–83Google Scholar; and Slattery, Brian, “Aboriginal Sovereignty and Imperial Claims,”Google Scholar in Cassidy, , ed., Aboriginal Self-Determination, pp. 197–219.Google Scholar

⁵ “Aboriginal and common-law system” refers to both the Aboriginal and common-law modes of argument, authoritative traditions, and concepts, and the institutions of property and practices of cross-cultural negotiation these modes of argument are associated with. The locus classions for this approach is Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations [1953], trans. Anscombe, G. E. M. (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988), sections 240–42.Google Scholar See Tully, James, “Wittgenstein and Political Philosophy: Understanding Practices of Critical Reflection,” Political Theory, vol. 17, no. 2 (05 1989), pp. 172–204CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and compare Bobbitt, Philip, Constitutional Interpretation (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1991), pp. 141–77Google Scholar, and Patterson, Dennis, “Conscience and the Constitution,” Columbia Law Review, vol. 93, no. 1 (01 1993), pp. 270–307.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁷ Worcester v. the State of Georgia, 6 Peter 515 (U.S.S.C. 1832), p. 542Google Scholar, reprinted in Marshall, John, The Writings of Chief Justice Marshall on the Federal Constitution (Littleton, CO: Fred B. Rothman & Co., 1987), pp. 426–27.Google Scholar

⁸ For international law, see Davies, Maureen, “Aspects of Aboriginal Rights in International Law,” in Aboriginal Peoples and the Law, ed. Morse, Bradford (Ottawa: University of Carleton Press, 1991), pp. 16–47, esp. pp. 37–40.Google Scholar Although there is agreement that the Aboriginal peoples are not conquered, there is less agreement on what their status is. The United Nations' forthcoming declaration on the rights of indigenous peoples may clarify this. See Discrimination against Indigenous Peoples: First Revised Text of the Draft Universal Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1989/33 (1989).Google Scholar

⁹ See, for example, Churchill, Ward, The Struggle for the Land: Indigenous Resistance to Genocide, Ecocide, and Expropriation in Contemporary North America (Toronto: Between the Lines, 1991)Google Scholar; and Clinebell, John Howard and Thomson, Jim, “Sovereignty and Self-Determination: The Rights of Native Americans under International Law,” Buffalo Law Review, vol. 27, no. 1 (1987), pp. 669–714.Google Scholar

¹⁰ See, for example, Green, L. C., “Claims to Territory in Colonial America,” in The Law of Nations and the New World, ed. Green, L. C. and Dickason, Olive P. (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 1989), pp. 1–131.Google Scholar

¹¹ For two different middle positions, see Barsh, Russell and Henderson, James Youngblood, The Road: Indian Tribes and Political Liberty (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980)Google Scholar; and Slattery, Brian, “First Nations and the Constitution: A Matter of Trust,” Canadian Bar Review, vol. 71, no. 1 (1992).Google Scholar

¹² The argument of Sections II and III is constructed on the basis of detailed historical scholarship in two previous essays: Tully, James, “Rediscovering America: The Two Treatises and Aboriginal Rights,” in Tully, , An Approach to Political Philosophy: Locke in Contexts (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 137–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and “Placing the Two Treatises,” in Political Discourse in Early Modern Britain, ed. Phillipson, Nicholas and Skinner, Quentin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 253–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹³ Johnson and Graham's Lessee v. M'Intosh, 8 Wheaton 543 (U.S.S.C. 1823), pp. 567–71Google Scholar, reprinted in Marshall, , Writings of Chief Justice Marshall, pp. 257–61.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Locke, John, Two Treatises of Government, ed. Laslett, Peter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970)Google Scholar, Second Treatise (II), sections 14, 30, 49, 108, 109; the quote in the text is from section 49.

¹⁵ Ibid., II, 30, 38, 45, 50, 87, 107, 108.

¹⁶ See Meek, Ronald, Social Science and the Ignoble Savage (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976)Google Scholar; and Tully, , “Placing the Two Treatises,” pp. 262–66.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Locke, , Two Treatises, II, 28, 30, 34, 36, 37, 41–43, 48–49.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Ibid., II, 27.

¹⁹ Ibid., II, 36.

²⁰ Ibid., II, 42, 45.

²¹ Ibid., II, 32.

²² Ibid., I, 130–31; II, 10, 11, 16.

²³ Ibid., II, 25, 39, 51.

²⁴ Ibid., II, 37, 40–43, 48–49.

²⁵ Ibid., II, 34, 37.

²⁶ Ibid., II, 40, 41, 42.

²⁷ Ibid., II, 37, 43. For this interpretation of Locke's solution to the “enough and as good” or “sufficiency” proviso, see Buckle, Stephen, Natural Law and the Theory of Property (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), pp. 150–53Google Scholar; Arneil, Barbara, All the World Was America: John Locke and English Colonization (London: University of London Ph.D., 1993)Google Scholar; and Sreenivasan, Gopal, The Limits of Lockean Rights in Property (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994).Google Scholar

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²⁹ Locke, , Two Treatises, II, 30, 38, 87.Google Scholar

³⁰ Ibid., II, 107–8, and the quotation in the editorial footnote to II, 107.

³¹ Ibid., II, 9, 108.

³² Ibid., II, 107.

³³ Ibid., II, 108.

³⁴ Ibid., II, 37, 48–49.

³⁵ Ibid., II, 50. See Tully, , “Rediscovering America,” pp. 164–66Google Scholar, for a defense of this interpretation.

³⁶ Williams, Roger, “The Bloody Tenant…,” in The Complete Writings of Roger Williams (New York: Russell & Russell, 1963), vol. 3, p. 250.Google Scholar See Moynihan, Ruth Barnes, “The Patent and the Indians: The Problem of Jurisdiction in Seventeenth-Century New England,” American Indian Culture and Research, vol. 2, no. 1 (1977), pp. 8–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³⁷ See Jennings, Francis, The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire: The Covenant Chain Confederation of Indian Tribes with English Colonies from Its Beginnings to the Lancaster Treaty of 1744 (New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 1984)Google Scholar; and Richter, Daniel and Merrell, James, eds., Beyond the Covenant Chain: The Iroquois and Their Neighbours in Indian North America (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1987).Google Scholar

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⁴¹ This synopsis of Aboriginal property systems is based on numerous anthropological studies. Two of the best are Wallace, Anthony F., “Political Organization and Land Tenure among Northeastern Indians, 1600–1830,” Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, vol. 13 (1957), pp. 301–21Google Scholar; and Starna, William A., “Aboriginal Title and Traditional Iroquois Land Use,” in Iroquois Land Claims, ed. Vecsey, Christopher and Starna, William A. (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1988), pp. 31–49.Google Scholar

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⁴⁴ See note 16 above.

⁴⁵ I defend this claim in “Placing the Two Treatises” (supra note 12), pp. 279–80.Google Scholar For the authors cited, see Pocock, John, Virtue, Commerce, and History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Harrington, James, The Political Writings of James Harrington, ed. Pocock, J. G. A. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977)Google Scholar; and Smith, Adam, Lectures on Jurisprudence, ed. Meek, Ronald, Raphael, D. D., and Stein, L. G. (Indianapolis: Liberty Press, 1982).Google Scholar

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⁴⁷ Ibid., pp. 112–15.

⁴⁸ Ibid., pp. 31–32, 124. For the philosophical background to the concept of “unsocial sociability,” see Hont, Istvan, “The Language of Sociability and Commerce: Samuel Pufendorf and the Theoretical Foundations of the ‘Four Stages Theory’,” in The Languages of Political Theory in Early-Modern Europe, ed. Pagden, Anthony (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. 253–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁵¹ Ibid., p. 119.

⁵² Ibid., p. 125.

⁵³ Ibid., pp. 118–19.

⁵⁴ Ibid., p. 118.

⁵⁵ Nozick, Robert, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (New York: Basic Books, 1974).Google Scholar See Lyons, David, “The New Indian Claims and Original Rights to Land,” in Reading Nozick: Essays on Anarchy, State, and Utopia, ed. Paul, Jeffrey (Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield, 1981), pp. 355–79.Google Scholar

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