I would like to thank Daniel Alexandrov,James Andrews, David Darrow, Ben Eklof, ﹛Catherine Kennedy, Adele Lindenmeyr, Charles Steinwedel, and members of the Midwest Russian History Workshop for valuable comments on earlier versions of this article, and the anonymous readers and editor of Slavic Review for pushing me to sharpen and extend the analysis. I received critical research support from the International Research and Exchanges Board, the National Endowment for the Humanities, and the Office of Faculty Development at Indiana University-Purdue University at Indianapolis.

1. Wildman, Allan K., The End of the Russian Imperial Army: The Old Army and the Soldiers' Revolt, March-April 1917 (Princeton, 1980), 36–40, 93Google Scholar; Haimson, Leopold H., “The Problem of Social Identities in Early Twentieth Century Russia,” Slavic Review 47, no. 1 (Spring 1988): 1–20 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Figes, Orlando, “The Russian Revolution and Its Language in the Village,“ Russian Revieiu 56 (July 1997): 323-45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

2. Weber, Eugen, Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870-1914 (Stanford, 1976)Google Scholar; Becker, Jean-Jacques, The Great War and the French People (New York, 1986).Google Scholar

3. Moon, David, “Peasants into Russian Citizens? A Comparative Perspective,” Revolutionary Russia 9, no. 1 (June 1996): 43–81 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Eklof, Ben, Russian Peasant Schools: Officialdom, Village Culture and Peasant Pedagogy, 1861-1914 (Berkeley, 1986)Google Scholar; Jeffrey Brooks's location of an emerging national identity in cheap popular literature is suggestive, but in the end fails to make the case that many peasants actually read this material: Wlien Russia Learned to Read: Literacy and Popular Literature, 1861-1917 (Princeton, 1985).

4. Lincoln, W. Bruce, Passage through Armageddon: The Russians in War and Revolution, 1914-1918 (New York, 1986), 45–46.Google Scholar

5. The revolution of 1905-07 provides a vivid example: see ScottJ. Seregny, “Peasants and Politics: Peasant Unions during the 1905 Revolution,” in Esther Kingston-Mann and Timothy Mixter, eds., Peasant Economy, Culture and Politics in European Russia, 1800-1921 (Princeton, 1991), 341-77.

6. Recent work on agronomy and cooperatives is helping to fill the historiographical void in one branch of zemstvo work: Kimitaka Matsuzato, “The Fate of Agronomists in Russia: Their Quantitative Dynamics from 1911 to \916,” Russian Review 55 (April 1996): 172- 200; Matsuzato, , “The Role of Zemstva in the Creation and Collapse of Tsarism's War Efforts during World War One,“Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 46, no. 3 (1998): 321-37Google Scholar; Kotsonis, Yanni, Making Peasants Backward: Agricultural Cooperatives and the Agrarian Question in Russia, 1861-1914 (London, 1999)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. In their otherwise admirable studies of medicine and schooling, John Hutchinson and Ben Eklof paid scant attention to post-1907 developments in the provinces: John F. Hutchinson, Politics and Public Health in Revolutionary Russia, 1890-1918 (Baltimore, 1990), and Eklof, Russian Peasant Schools.

7. Manning, Roberta T., The Crisis of the Old Order in Russia: Gentry and Government (Princeton, 1982)Google Scholar; Wcislo, Francis W., Reforming Rural Russia: State, LocalSociety andNational Politics, 1855-1914 (Princeton, 1990)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Haimson, Leopold H., ed., The Politics of Rural Russia, 1905-1914 (Bloomington, 1979)Google Scholar. The best recent treatment of the zemstvos reinforces the same sense of ultimate bankruptcy, providing little examination of the period between the immediate post-1905 reaction and the zemstvo's demise in 1917-18: Terence Emmons and Wayne S. Vucinich, eds., The ‘Zemstvo in Russia: An Experiment in Local Self-Government (Cambridge, Eng., 1982).

8. B. B.Vese\ovsku,/sloriiazemstvazasoroklel, 4vols. (St. Petersburg, 1909-11). Veselovskii's own subsequent views on the zemstvo, as revealed in the journal he edited, Zemskoe delo (1910-1917), are much more balanced, sanguine, and not bound by the “zemstvo reaction“ straitjacket.

9. For example, Jeffrey Brooks, “The Zemstvo and the Education of the People,” in Emmons and Vucinich, eds., Zemstvo in Russia, 266-69. I examine the capacity of state officials to direct the education project in “Power and Discourse in Russian Elementary Education: The School Inspectorate, 1869-1917,“Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 47, no. 2 (1999): 161-86.

10. Some historians have noted in passing the renewal and growth of zemstvo programs evident by 1909, and some even concede that, especially in agriculture, zemstvos displayed an “unprecedented degree of vitality.” They emphasize the role of external factors in this shift, however, above all the stimulus provided by state funding for local programs (which was indeed important), and do not follow this trend in subsequent years or address its significance: Ruth Delia MacNaughton and Roberta Thompson Manning, “The Crisis of the Third of June System and Political Trends in the Zemstvos, 1907-1914,” in Haimson, ed., Politics of Rural Russia, 190-92.

11. The wartime experience of social, labor, welfare, and education reform in Britain, France, and elsewhere illustrates this paradox: Porter, Bruce D., War and the Rise of the Stale: The Military Foundations of Modern Politics (New York, 1994), xvii, chap. 5Google Scholar; Marwick, Arthur, The Deluge: British Society and the First World War (New York, 1965)Google Scholar.

12. Frommett, Boris, “Kul'turnaia rabota v derevne,” Zavety, 1913, no. 6:132-44Google Scholar; Frommett, , “Molodaia krest'ianskaia intelligentsiia,” Zavety, 1914, no. 5:13–23 Google Scholar. This optimism needs to be placed alongside educated society's anxiety about peasant degeneration, crime, and “otherness” that Stephen P. Frank has stressed: “Confronting the Domestic Other: Rural Popular Culture and Its Enemies in Fin-de-Siècle Russia,” in Frank, Stephen P. and Steinberg, Mark D., eds., Cultures in Flux: Lower Class Values, Practices and Resistancein Late Imperial Russia (Princeton, 1994), 74–107 Google Scholar.

13. P. Zhulev, “Voina i zadachi narodnogo uchitelia,” Russkaia shkola, 1914, no. 9-10: 38-39. On the earlier appearance of newspapers in the village, particularly in 1905, see “Periodicheskaia pechat’ v derevne,” Vestnik vospitaniia, 1906, no. 6, sec. 2:85-88; Burds, Jeffrey, Peasant Dreams and Market Politics: Labor Migration and the Russian Village, 1861-1905 (Pittsburgh, 1998), 176-79Google Scholar. Buganov, A. V., Russkaia istoriia vpamiati krest'ian XIXveka i national'noe samosoznanie (Moscow, 1992)Google Scholar, has gone so far as to argue that peasants’ experience of the wars against France (1812) and Turkey (1877-78), and their historical memory of those conflicts, helped foster a degree of national consciousness during the nineteenth century.

14. Malinovskii, N. P., “Voina i derevnia,” Russkaia shkola, 1914, no. 12:15 Google Scholar. See also, K. I. Iofe, “Zemskaia periodicheskaia pechat',” Zemskoedelo, 1915, no. 23:1298-99; V. Murinov, “Gazeta v derevne,” Vestnik vospitaniia, 1916, no. 4:176-89; Voina i Koslromskaia derevnia (po dannym ankety statisticheskogo otdeleniia) (Kostroma, 1915), 73-77.

15. Boris Frommett, “Voina—uchitel'nitsa i vneshkol'noe obrazovanie,” Tekhnicheskoe ikommercheskoeobrazovanie, 1914, no. 8:11.

16. Frommett, “Voina—uchitel'nitsa,” 5; N. Oganovskii, “Otrezvlennaia Rossiia,” Severnye zapiski, 1914, no. 12:21-24; E. N. Medynskii, “Voina i prosvetitel'skaia deiatel'iiost' zemstva,” Zemskoe delo, 1914, no. 18:1151. There is little doubt that prohibition adversely affected the availability of drink in rural Russia at least until 1917, in part because the art of lamogrm-making was little developed when the war began: Christian, David, “Prohibition in Russia, 1914-1925,” Australian Slavonic and East European Studies 9, no. 2 (1995): 89-109Google Scholar. Zemstvo surveys found evidence for a strong correlation between prohibition and rural demand for reading material and other cultural diversions: Sokolov, P. K., ed., Ekaterinoslavskaia derevniaposlezakrytiia vinotorgovlia (Ekaterinoslav, 1915), 55-66Google Scholar; Kakpovliialoprekrashchenieprodazhi vodkinazhizn’ naseleniiaPoltavskoigub. (Poltava, 1915), 33-37; Codtrezvostiv Kazanskoigubernii (Kazan', 1916), 67-68, 157-71; Voronov, D. N., Zhizn’ derevnivdni trezvosti (po dannym zemskikh i drugikh anket) (Petrograd, 1916), 27–28 Google Scholar.

17. The Russian term encompassed all efforts outside the classroom, often including preschooling, and is sometimes translated as “extramural” or “extracurricular“; here it will be used mainly in the sense of programs for adults (or adolescents) and will be translated as “adult education.” On libraries, see Stuart, Mary, “'The Ennobling Illusion': The Public Library Movement in Late Imperial Russia,” Slavonic, and East European Review 76, no. 3 (1998): 401-40Google Scholar.

18. B. Korelin, “Ministerstvo narodnogo prosveshcheniia o vneshkol'nom obrazovanii,“ Zemskoe delo, 1915, no. 24:1340. Out of a total budget of nearly 150 million rubles, the ministry allocated almost nothing for adult programs (125,000 rubles in 1911; 225,000 in 1912 and the same again in 1913; 253,000 in 1914; and 424,000 in 1915).

19. E. Zviagintsev, “Zemstvo i vneshkol'noe prosveshchenie naroda,” Vestnik vospilaniia, 1914, no. 2:122-45; Medynskii, E. N., Vneshkol'noeobrazovanie, egoznachenie, organimlsiia i tekhnika, 2d ed. (Moscow, 1916).Google Scholar

20. E. A. Oleinik, “Nasha nachal'naia shkola,” Dlia narodnogo uchitelia, 1916, no. 19: 2-7; 1916,no.20:2-ll.

21. V. Iur'ev, “Zemstvo i vneshkol'noe obrazovanie,” ‘Zemskoedelo, 1914, no. 5:315-25. The landmark All-Zemstvo Education Congress held in Moscow in August 1911 played an important role in this turn to adult education.

22. Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi istoricheskii arkhiv (RGIA), f. 733,op. 201 (1909), d. 96 (Ministry of Education correspondence on adult courses), 11. 19-20ob.; E. Zviagintsev, “Inspektsiia narodnykh uchilishch i vneshkol'noe obrazovanie naroda,” Vestnik vospitaniia, 1915, no. 1:34-45; Medynskii, E. N., “Vneshkol'noe obrazovanie i mestnaia administratsiia,“ UchileV i shkola, 1915, no. 3:26–32.Google Scholar

23. See Medynskii, E. N., “S“ezdy i soveshchaniia po vneshkornomu obrazovaniiu,“ Russkaia shkola, 1916, no. 12:48–56 Google Scholar; P. K[azants]ev, “Svod naibolee interesnykh postanovlenii ocherednykh uezdnykh zemskikh sobranii drugikh gubernii v 1915 godu,” petrogradskii zemskii vestnik, December 1915, 162-69.

24. “Iz ‘ob“iasnitel'noi zapiski k smete ministerstva narodnogo prosveshcheniia na 1916g.,'” Zhurnalministerstvanarodnogoprosveshcheniia, 1916, no. 7-8:170-76; A. B ov, “Narodnye leklsii i chtem'm o voine,” Petrogradskii zemskii vestnik, July-August 1916, 65-66.

25. Oganovskii, N., “Statistiko-geograficheskii obzor Ufimskoi gubernii,” Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’ (Granat), 7th ed. (Moscow, 1910-1938), 42:512-19Google Scholar; Zlatoverkhovnikov, Ivan, Ufimskaia eparkhiia: Geogmficheskii, etnograficheskii, administrativno-istoricheskii i statislicheskii ocherk (Ufa, 1899), 206-14, 233-41 (I would like to thank Chuck Steinwedel for calling my attention to this source)Google Scholar; V. P. Semenov-Tian'-Shanskii, ed., Rossiia: Polnoegeograficheskoe opisanienashego otechestva, 11 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1899-1914), vol. 5, chaps. 5, 9. Ufa had a rural population in 1912 of nearly three million: 32 percent Russians (concentrated in the Ufa and Zlatoust districts), 29 percent Bashkirs (mainly in Belebei, Birsk, Menzelinsk, and Sterlitamak) as well as 9 percent Teptiars, 7 percent Tatars, 6 percent Meshcheriaks, 3 percent Mari, 2.5 percent Chuvash, 2 percent Mordva, 1 percent Votiaks, 1 percent baptized Tatars and Bashkirs, and scattered colonies of Estonians, Latvians, and Germans.

26. P. Grigor'ev, “Voprosy narodnogo obrazovaniia na Ufimskom gubernskom sobranii,“ Zemskoe delo, 1913, no. 5:424-26; V. Nevskii, “Zemskie biblioteki Ufimskoi gubernii,“ ZeTnskoedeb, 1914, no. 7:524-27; Plan deiatel'nosti Ufimskogo Gubernskogo Zemstvapo narodnomu obrazovaniiu, 2d ed. (Ufa, 1913); N. P. [Smolin], “Vneshkol'noe obrazovanie v ufimskom i nizhegorodskom gub. zemstvakh,” UchiteV i shkola, 1914, no. 19-20:21-23; Charles Steinwedel, “The Local Politics of Empire: State, Religion and Ethnicity in Tsarist Bashkiria, 1865-1917” (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1999), chap. 7.

27. RGIA, f. 1288, op. 3 (1913), d. 90 (Ministry of Interior correspondence on the closure of the Ufa zemstvo's libraries), 11. 1-38; RGIA, f. 733, op. 178 (1911), d. 279 (official review of rules on libraries), 11. 60-70; F. Chuchin, “Vopros o prishkol'nykh bibliotekakh na zemskikh sobraniiakh,” Vestnik Riazanskogo gub. zemstva, 1913, no. 3:32-34. The inspector in Ufa district, A. A. Liubimov, ordered teacher-librarians to remove a long list of books, including works by L. Andreev, M. Gor'kii, A. Kuprin, Skitalets, and B. Zutner (pacifist tracts). Another inspector reportedly tried to remove 95 percent of library contents by equating the narodnye libraries with those for school pupils, also housed in the school and regulated by a very restricted ministry list of approved items.

28. Chuchin, “Vopros,” 34-35; A. Mezier, “Iz khroniki bibliotechnogo i knizhnogo dela,” Russkaia shkola, 1913, no. 5-6:129-30; Grigor'ev, “Voprosy,” 427-31; upon completion in ten years time, the Ufa zemstvo's library network would include nearly 2,500 libraries: 170 subdistrict, 113 intermediate, and 2,142 basic: Obukhov, “Bibliotechnaia set' ufimskogo gubemskogo zemstva,” Uchitel’ i shkola, 1915, no. 4:14.

29. Obukhov, M. I., Narodnye i tsentral'nye biblioteki Ufimskogo gubernskogo zemstva. 1914 god. Statisticheskii ocherk (Ufa, 1915), 5–10, 44-49Google Scholar; Zlatoverkhovnikov, Ufimskaia eparkhiia. One library was “Estonian” and one “Latvian.“

30. Ufimskii vestnik, no. 11 (15 January 1914): 3; no. 42 (21 February 1914): 3. Although non-Russians made up more than 60 percent of the province's population, only 734 of 1,930 schools were earmarked for them. Nevertheless, Ufa was well ahead of other provinces in the region with large minority populations (Kazan', Simbirsk, Samara): G. Teregulov, “O sovremennom polozhenii nachal'nogo obrazovaniia inorodtsev,” Biulkten’ otdela narodnogo obrazovaniia Ufimskoi Gubernskoi Zemskoi Upravy (hereafter Biulleten’), 1916, no. 2:73-74.

31. Obukhov, Narodnye i tsentral'nye biblioteki, 11-43.

32. Koropachinskii quoted in I. Krapchatov, “Ufa: Gubernskie zemskie kursy po vneshkol'nomu obrazovaniiu,” Uchitel’ ishkola, 1914, no. 15-16:59-64.

33. Sbornik zhurnalov Ufimskogo gubernskogo zemskogo sobraniia XL oclierednoi sessii 1914 goda(l-18dekabria 1914goda) (Ufa, 1915), 94-102,477-500; M. K., “Voinai zemskie smety v Ufimskoi gub.,” Zemskoedelo, 1915, no. 4:254-55; E. Zviagintsev, “Obzor postanovlenii po narodnomu obrazovaniiu gubernskikh zemskikh sobranii sessii 1914 goda,” Vestnik vospitaniia, 1915, no. 3:75-81.

34. Sbornik poslanovlenii Sterlitamakskogo uezdnogo zemskogo sobraniia 40-i ocherednoi sessii 1914 goda (Sterlitamak, 1915), 3-8; Ufimskii vestnik, no. 33 (12 February 1915): 4; no. 47 (28 February 1915): 4; no. 52 (6 March 1915): 4; no. 69 (31 March 1915): 4.

35. Ufimskii vestnik, no. 30 (8 February 1915): 3; M. I. Obukhov, Narodnye chteniia 1914-15 uchebnyigod: Statislicheskii ocherk (Ufa, 1915), 31-32.

36. I. Krapchatov, “Svodka postanovlenii gubernskogo soveshchaniia po vneshkol'nomu obrazovaniiu, prolskhodivshego s 10 po 19 iiulia 1915 goda pri ufimskoi gub. zemskoi uprave,” Uchitel’ ishkola, 1915, no. 19-20:46-56.

37. “Iz zhizni i deiatel'nosti narodnykh bibliotek,” Biulleten', 1915, no. 1:59-60; Vorontsov, D., “Polozhenie vneshkol'nogo obrazovaniia v Novotroitskom raione, Birskogo uezda,” Biulleten', 1915, no. 3:151-61Google Scholar; Obukhov, Narodnyei tsentral'nyebiblioteki, 45. In February 1915 the governor approved the provincial zemstvo's petition to hold lectures throughout Ufa province. These lectures could be held according to the rules on public assembly of 4 March 1906, on condition that in each instance approval from local school inspectors be obtained when school buildings would be used and where teachers would be giving the lectures: Ufimskii vestnik, no. 38 (18 February 1915): 3.

38. Bibliotekar'-vneshkol'nik, “Iz deiatel'nosti odnoi raionnoi biblioteki,” Biulleten', 1915,no.2:28-31.

39. In Buraeva (Birsk), conservative mullahs, who were hostile to any initiative that came from the urussy (Russians) as well as newspapers and books by progressive Tatar writers, managed to frighten many peasants away from library services, claiming that they were forbidden by Muslim law: Ufimskii vestnik, no. 103 (14 May 1915): 4.

40. Leonid Korovin, “Polgoda raboty vbiblioteke/'Brntoera', 1915, no. 2:16-17. The Sediash library, named in honor of Pavlenkov, was established in 1909 and reorganized as the subdistrict library of the provincial zemstvo (designated Russian) in 1914: Obukhov, Narodnye i tsentral'nye biblioteki, 45. On peasant disinterest in the empire, see Wildman, End of the Russian Imperial Army.

41. Korovin, “Polgoda raboty v biblioteke,” 17-24.

42. Ufimets D. Ozhi., “Rabota, dumy, bolezni vneshkol'nika,” UchiteV i shkola, 1915, no. 23-24:40-43; also G. Matveev, “Rabota po vneshkol'nomu obrazovaniiu vTabynskom r., Sterlitamakskogo u.,” Biulleten', 1916, no. 1:96-99.

43. “Konspekty narodnykh chtenii,” Biulleten', 1915, no. 1:51-59; A. I. Sedov, “Opyt programmy narodnykh chtenii po voprosam, sviazannym s mirovoi voinoi,” Biulleten', 1916, no. 4:60-64. Hubertus F.Jahn has found a similar deemphasis of the dynasty in the pictorial “patriotic culture” produced and consumed by a largely urban audience: “For Tsar and Fatherland? Russian Popular Culture and the First World War,” in Frank and Steinberg, eds., Cultures in Flux, 131-46; see also his Patriotic Culture in Russia during World War I (Ithaca, 1995) which focuses on urban Russia.

44. “Soedinennoe soveshchanie predstavitelei Ufimskoi gubemskoi i Belebeevskoi uezdnoi zemskikh uprav po voprosam vneshkol'nogo obrazovaniia na 12 i 13 fevralia 1915 goda,” Biulleten', 1915, no. 2:46, 49-52; I. Krapchatov, “Soedinennoe soveshchanie predstavitelei Ufimskoi gubernskoi i Belebeevskoi uezdnoi zemskikh uprav po voprosam vneshkol'nogo obrazovaniia,” Uchitel’ i shkola, 1915, no. 15-16:77-86.

45. E. K., “S. Verkhne-Troitskoe (Belebeevsk. uez.),” Ufimskii vestnik, no. 130 (13June 1914): 4; Sbornik poslanovlenii Belebeevskogo uezdnogo zemskogo sobraniia po narodnomu obrazovaniiu, XXXIX ocherednoe i XXXVIII chrezvychainoe sobranie 1913 goda (Belebei, 1914), 458; Sbornik poslanovlenii Belebeevskogo uezdnogo zemskogo sobraniia po narodnomu obrazovaniiu, 40 ocherednoe i 39 chrezvychainoe sobranie 1914 goda (Belebei, 1915), 388-89; Zlatoverkhovnikov, Ufimskaia eparkhiia, 156.

46. “Soedinennoe soveshchanie,” 48; Sbornik poslanovlenii Belebeevskogo uezdnogo zemskogo sobraniia po narodnomu obrazovaniiu, 41-e ocherednoe sobranie 1915 goda (Belebei, 1916), 467. Kalashnikova went on to become one of the most active vneshkol'niki in Belebei, organizing in Verkhne-Troitskoe one of the first children's playgrounds (complete with croquet and other equipment) intended by the zemstvo to provide childcare for peasant families while they labored in the fields: Ufimskii vestnik, no. 156 (17July 1915): 4.

47. “Soedinennoe soveshchanie,” 40-41, 42-43; Zlatoverkhovnikov, Ufimskaia eparkhiia, 165.

48. “Soedinennoe soveshchanie,” 41-42.

49. Ibid, 51; Sbornik postanovlenii… 1915 goda, 468.

50. “Soedinennoe soveshchanie,” 51.

51. Krapchatov, “Soedinennoe,” 77-81, 85-86.

52. “Doklady gubernskoi zemskoi upravy 41-mu ocherednomu Ufimskomu gubernskomu zemskomu sobraniiu, sessii 1915 goda,” BiuUeten!, 1916, no. happendix, 6, 13-14.

53. Obukhov, Narodnye chteniia, 41-42; “Otchet o sostoianii vneshkol'nogo obrazovaniia po Belebeevskomu uezdu za 1915-1916 akademicheskii god,” Biulleten', 1916, no. 5 - 6:75-78; “Kratkii obzor deiatel'nosti Ufimskogo gubernskogo zemstva po narodnomu obrazovaniiu za 1916 god,” Biulleten', 1916, no. 5-6:appendix, 8.

54. “Khronika,”, Biulleten', 1916, no. 2:100.

55. “Soveshchanie raionnykh bibliotekarei Zlatoustovskogo uezda (17-19 avg. 1915 g.),” Biulleten', 1916, no. 1:69; A. Sedov, “Otchet o polozhenii vneshkol'nogo obrazovaniia v Sterlitamakskom uezde s 1 iiulia 1915 goda po 1 iiulia 1916 goda,” Biulleten', 1916, no. 5 - 6:14-15. The belief that anchoring national identity in attachment to a more familiar region was popular in Germany and was adopted by Russian educators before the war: Kennedy, Katherine D., “Regionalism and Nationalism in South German History Lessons, 1871-1914,” German Studies Review 12, no. 1 (1989): 11–33 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Harp, Stephen L., Learning to Be Loyal: Primary Schooling as Nation Building in Alsace and Lorraine, 1850-1940 (DeKalb, 1998)Google Scholar; Confino, Alon, The Nation as a Local Metaphor: Wurltemberg, Imperial Germany and National Memory, 1871-1918 (Chapel Hill, 1997)Google Scholar.

56. “Soveshchanie po voprosam vneshkol'nogo obrazovaniia 10-12 fevralia 1916 goda pri Belebeevskoi uezdnoi zemskoi uprave,” Biulleten', 1916, no. 4: appendix, 14 (statement by la. la. Skue, librarian in Bulanovsk, Belebei).

57. Ufimskii vestnik, no. 30 (7 February 1916): 3.

58. The zemstvo calculated that, together with 357 libraries, the reading huts would bring the total number of reading rooms in the province to 800, a ratio of one reading room for seven villages in a province with 5,324 villages: Mikh. Obukhov, “Chital'ni-izby, organizuemye Ufimskim gubernskim zemstvom,” Biulleten', 1916, no. 1:41-44; “Khronika,“ Biulleten', 1916, no. 1:109; “Kratkii obzor … za 1916 g.,” 7-8; “Otchet o sostoianii vneshkol'nogo obrazovaniia po Ufimskomu uezdu v 1915-1916 uchebnom godu,” Biulleten', 1916, no. 5-6:91-92; A. Koshcheev, “Otchet o vneshkol'nom obrazovanii uezdnogo zaveduiushchego za 1915-1916 uchebnyi god po Birskomu uezdu,” Biulleten', 1916, no. 5-6:98; M. I. Obukhov, “O poriadkeotkrytiiabibliotek,” Zftw/fetera', 1916, no. 3:58-61.

59. “Kratkii obzor … za 1916 g.,” 1, 8-9.

60. “Otchet o sostoianii … po Belebeevskomu uezdu,” 86-87; “Soveshchanie po voprosam,” 20-21, 35-36. On France, see Becker, Great War, 158-60; Weber, Peasants, 317-18.

61. “Doklady … sessii 1915 goda,” 15-16; Mikh. Obukhov, “Raskhody Ufimskogo zemstva na delo narodnogo obrazovaniia v 1916 godu,” Biulleten', 1916, no. 1:49-50; “Kratkii obzor … za 1916 g.,” 10.

62. “Protokoly soveshchaniia po voprosam vneshkol'nogo obrazovaniia pri Ufimskoi gubernskoi zemskoi uprave s 7 po 14 sentiabria 1916 goda,” Biulleten', 1916, no. 4: appendix, 7-8; “Soveshchanie po voprosam,” 12-14, 21; Sedov, “Otchet,” 5; “Otchet o sostoianii … po Ufimskomu uezdu,” 88-89; Koshcheev, “Otchet,” 96-97. By the spring of 1917, the war had removed 44.6 percent of the able-bodied rural male population of Ufa province: Rossiia v mirovoi voine 1914-1918goda (v isifrakh) (Moscow, 1925), 21.

63. Sbornik postanovlenii… 1915 goda, 475-76; “Soveshchanie po voprosam,” 11.

64. Ufimskii vestnik, no. 3 (5 January 1916): 2; Sedov, “Otchet,” 9; Koshcheev, “Otchet,” 97; “Soveshchanie po voprosam,” 29; “Protokoly soveshchaniia,” 2, 4.

65. “Soveshchanie po voprosam,” 19; I. Krapchatov, “Soveshchanie po voprosam vneshkol'nogo obrazovaniia v Ufimskom uezde,” Uchitel’ i shkola, 1915, no. 5:60. In Ministry of Education schools, 56,000 men were teaching in 1914 (out of a total of 129,000 ); of these, 33,000 were eligible for military service and most sources agree that close to this number were mobilized: Narodnyi uchitel', 1914, no. 21:5-6; N. P. Malinovskii, “Voina i shkola,” Russkaia shkola, 1914, no. 7-8:95-105; see also Joshua A. Sanborn, “Drafting the Nation: Military Conscription and the Formation of a Modern Polity in Tsarist and Soviet Russia, 1905-1925” (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1998), chap. 1.

66. RGIA, f. 1288, op. 3 (1916), d. 18 (zemstvo petitions to the Ministry of Education), 11. 558-60; E. Zviagintsev, “Iz khroniki narodnogo obrazovaniia,” Vestnik vospitaniia, 1916, no. 9:38-40.

67. Sedov, “Otchet,” 10.

68. Becker, Great War, 150-60; in Germany, one-third of male schoolteachers had been called to the army by 1915, half of those in Prussia by 1916: Harp, Learning to Be Loyal, 164; Bessel, Richard, Germany after the First World War (Oxford, 1993), 24 Google Scholar. However, of 187,000 teachers in Germany (1911), 148,000 were men: Volker R. Berghahn, Imperial Germany, 1871-1914:Economy, Society, Culture, andPolitics (Providence, 1994), 315. In France, at least 30,000 teachers (there were 56,000 lay male teachers in 1906) were mobilized during the entire course of the war (8,000 of those were killed): Duveau, Georges, Les Instituteurs (Paris, 1957), 159 Google Scholar.

69. Obukhov, Narodnye chteniia, 32-33; “Soveshchanie po voprosam,” 9-10, 16. In similar fashion, official suspicion combined with conscription to undercut teachers’ participation in the cooperative movement: Scott J. Seregny, “Teachers and Rural Cooperatives: The Politics of Education and Professional Identities in Russia, 1908-1917,” Russian Reviexu 55 (October 1996): 567-90.

70. RGIA, f. 1288, op. 3 (1915), d. 31 (reports on education from governors of various provinces), 11. 158-63. The governor refused to confirm some zemstvo appointments to libraries: Ufimskii vestnik, no. 154 (15 July 1915): 4.

71. Obukhov, Narodnye chteniia, 36-37; Sedov, “Otchet,” 9; Koshcheev, “Otchet,“ 97. The zemstvo's decision in 1915-16 to pay 1 ruble per lecture increased teacher participation.

72. Uchi. Dmitrii Ozhig—v, “Zametki narodnogo uchitelia,” Biulleten', 1915, no. 2: 32-34.

73. E. Zviagintsev, “Iz khroniki narodnogo obrazovaniia,” Vestnik vospitaniia, 1917, no. 1:83.

74. “Protokoly soveshchaniia,” 3, 6-8; Sedov, “Otchet,” 4-5; “Doklad Menzelinskoi uezdnoi zemskoi uprave Menzelinskogo uezdnogo zaveduiushchego vneshkol'nym obrazovaniem P. la. Nikol'skogo,” Biulleten'', 1916, no. 5-6:51-52; “Kratkii obzor … za 1916 g-.” 1-4.

75. E. Zviagintsev, “Iz khroniki narodnogo obrazovaniia,” Vestnik vospitaniia, 1916, no. 9:27-46; 1917, no. 1:80-99; E. Zviagintsev, “Postanovleniiagubernskikh zemskikh sobranii ocherednoi sessii,” Vestnik vospitaniia, 1917, no. 4-5, sec. 2:65-83.

76. Sedov, “Otchet,” 1; Matveev, “Rabota,” 99.

77. On this problem, with reference to urban workers, see William G. Rosenberg, “Representing Workers and the Liberal Narrative of Modernity,” Slavic Review 55, no. 2 (Summer 1996): 245-69.

78. On another province, see Scott J. Seregny, “A Wager on the Peasantry: Anti- Zemstvo Riots, Adult Education and the Russian Village during the First World War: Stavropol’ Province,” Slavonic and East European Review (forthcoming).

79. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983).

80. RGIA, f. 1288, op. 3 (1912), d. 83 (Ministry of Interior reports on zemstvo elections in 14 provinces for the 1912-15 term), 11. 367-97ob.; see also Steinwedel, “The Local Politics of Empire,” chap. 5. Magnitskii, the adult education director in Belebei, had a police record highlighting earlier involvement in the Socialist Revolutionary party: Gosudarstvennyi arkhiv Iaroslavskoi oblasti, f. 906, op. 4, d. 1158 (list of participants in a national zemstvo conference on adult education held in Iaroslavl', August 1915), 1. 99.

81. See essays by Balzer, Harley, Rieber, Alfred J., and others in Clowes, Edith W., Kassow, Samuel D., and West, James L., eds., Between Tsar and People: Educated Society and the Quest for Public Identity in Late Imperial Russia (Princeton, 1991).Google Scholar

82. Home, John, “Remobilizing for ‘Total War': France and Britain, 1917-1918,” in Home, John, ed., State, Society and Mobilization in Europe during the First World War (Cambridge, Eng., 1997), 195-211.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

83. Mikhail I. Obukhov, who headed the Ufa zemstvo's education department and oversaw adult education during the war, worked during the 1920s in Ufa in an analogous capacity: Gosudarstvennyi arkhiv Rossiiskoi Federatsii, f. 6862, op. 1, d. 89 (memoirs of participants in the professional teachers’ movement during 1905 and after), 1. 18ob. On reading huts, see Kenez, Peter, The Birth of the Propaganda State: Soviet Methods of Mass Mobilization, 1917-1929 (Cambridge, Eng., 1985), 137-43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar