The initial version of this article was discussed at 2013 Pogrankom (a reading group in Russian and Soviet history in southern Ontario and upstate New York), while I presented variations of it at “The Violence of War: Experiences and Images of Conflict,” University College London 19-20 June 2014, at The Association for Slavic, East European and Eurasian Studies (ASEEES) annual convention, San Antonio, 20-23 November 2014, and at European University at St. Petersburg, Russia, 30 April 2015. I am thankful to Harriet Murav and the two anonymous reviewers for Slavic Review for their helpful comments. I want to especially express gratitude to my advisor Lynne Viola and members of my dissertation committee Doris Bergen and Anna Shternshis for their advice and support. I am also grateful to my University of Toronto former and current fellow Ph.D. students and friends—Francesca Silano, Oleksandr Melnyk, Anna Hájkova, Maris Rowe-McCulloch, Seth Bernstein and Kristina Pauksens—for offering their advice on various drafts of this article.

1. See this article’s section Circumstantial Factors for a detailed discussion of the magnitude of sexual violence.

2. According to one estimate, Americans raped 17,080 women in all of western Europe including Germany, while a different source maintains that Americans subjected 190,000 German women to sexual violence. For a lower figure see Lilly, J. Robert, Taken by Force: Rape and American GIs in Europe during World War II (Basingstoke, Eng., 2007), 11 Google Scholar; for a higher figure see Gebhardt, Miriam, Als die Soldaten kamen. Die Vergewaltigung deutscher Frauen am Ende des Zweiten Weltkriegs (Munich, 2015), 38 Google Scholar. The number of rapes that the Americans perpetrated in France was likely in thousands, since according to one estimate, the Americans victimized 208 women in the department of Manche, discussed by Wieviorka, Olivier, Normandy: the Landings to the Liberation of Paris (Cambridge, Mass., 2008), 329 Google Scholar. The French and British behaviour in western European countries seems to have been even worse; see Beevor, Antony, The Fall of Berlin 1945 (New York, 2002), 192-93Google Scholar.

3. For Czechoslovakia see Applebaum, Rachel, “Friends Forged through War? Memories of the Soviet Liberation of Czechoslovakia” (paper, Association for Slavic, East European, & Eurasian Studies, San Antonio, 2014)Google Scholar; Applebaum, Rachel, “The Friendship Project: Socialist Internationalism in the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia in the 1950s and 1960s,” Slavic Review 74, no.3 (Fall 2015): 487–88CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Timofejev, Aleksej, Rusi i drugi svetski rat u Jugoslaviji: Uticaj SSSR-a i ruskih emigranata na događaje u Jugoslavia 1941-1945 (Belgrade, 2011), 225-26Google Scholar. For Bulgaria see this article’s section: Circumstantial Factors.

4. Wood, Elisabeth Jean, “Variation in Sexual Violence during War,” Politics & Society 34, no. 3 (September 2006): 307 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5. Slutskii, Boris, Zapiski o voine: Stikhotvoreniia i ballady (St. Petersburg, 2000), 127 Google Scholar.

6. This article is based on the documents from the Red Army’s depository, and the archive of the NKVD Army for the Protection of the Rear of the Red Army (The NKVD Army), which enforced discipline in the military’s rear. The NKVD Army files are held in Rossisskii Gosudarstvenyi Voennyi Arkhiv (RGVA), while the Red Army collection is in Tsentral’nyi Arkhiv Ministerstva Oborony Rossiiskoi Federatsii (TsAMO). The latter is usually inaccessible to foreigners, but I obtained a large number of documents from a Russian colleague while others were published in documentary collections. Moreover, this paper relies on Yugoslav military (Vojni Arhiv Srbije, VA) and party archives (Ar-hiv Jugoslavije, AJ), as well as the regional archives (Istorijiski Arhiv Subotice, IAS) and (Zaječar, IAZ). The article also uses personal sources such as diaries, letters, memoirs and interviews. The author conducted twenty-two interviews in Serbia with former Partisans and civilians of various political persuasions. These are used occasionally to illuminate Yugoslav encounters with Soviet soldiers.

7. Krivosheev, G. F., ed., Rossiia i SSSR v voinakh XX veka: Poteri vooruzhennykh sil; staticheskoe issledovanie (Moscow, 2001), 300 Google Scholar.

8. Timofejev, Rusi, 188.

9. I employ the term Yugoslavs rather than Serbs because not all of the civilians and especially not all of the Partisans in Serbia were ethnic Serbs, while many who were would have identified as Yugoslavs. Furthermore, Serbs were citizens of Yugoslavia, so the term Yugoslavs is formally accurate in describing them.

10. According to Milova;n Đilas, a leading Yugoslav communist, the Soviet troops committed 121 rapes in Yugoslavia, of which 111 were murder-rapes, as well as 1,204 cases of looting with assault, see Đilas, Milovan, Conversations with Stalin (New York, 1962), 89 Google Scholar. Dedijer, Vladimir, an important Yugoslav official and Tito’s official biographer, claimed that Soviet troops committed 1,219 rapes, 111 murders, and 1,204 robberies accompanied with physical violence, Vladimir Dedijer, ed., Josip Broz Tito: Prilozi za Biografiju (Za greb, 1953), 441-43Google Scholar. Dedijer’s document was subsequently added to Tito’s files which were meant to prepare him for his meeting with Nikita Khrushchev in 1956, AI KPR I-3-a 2/4 “Dokumenta o odnosima FNRJ-SSSR. Postupci sovjetskih vojnika prema narodu i imovini u FNRJ: prilog br30.” According to both Dilas and Dedijer, their figures were based on reported cases. Robert Lilly, in his study of the sexual violence perpetrated by the Ameri can troops in Europe, multiplied reported cases of rape by twenty times to get at the more accurate number of actual rapes, Lilly, Taken by Force, 12.1 use Lilly’s formula to provide my estimate of the number of rapes committed by the Red Army in Yugoslavia based on Dilas’ and Dedijer’s figures.

11. Naimark, Norman M., The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-49 (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), 133 Google Scholar.

12. For Hungary see Kenez, Peter, Hungary from the Nazis to the Soviets: The Establishment of the Communist Regime in Hungary, 1944-1948 (Cambridge, Eng., 2006), 41–42 Google Scholar. For Austria see Lewis, Jill, Workers and Politics in Occupied Austria, 1945-1955 (Manchester, 2007), 40 Google Scholar.

13. Interview, Anonymous (woman), April 17, 2012, Negotin; Interview, Božidar Stojanović, 24 April 2012, Negotin; Interview, Bratislav Filipović, March 13 2012, Belgrade.

14. For Romanian women see Blavatnik Archive (BA), “Lichnyi Dnevnik” 26.8.1944-31.5.1945. El’kinson Pavel Abramovich, 3. For Hungarian women see Andrea Peto, “Memory and the narrative of rape in Budapest and Vienna in 1945” in Bessel, Richard and Schumann, Dirk eds., Life After Death: Approaches to a Cultural and Social History of Europe During the 1940s and 1950s (Cambridge, Eng., 2003), 139 CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For Austrian women see Lewis, Workers and Politics, 69.

15. Naimark, The Russians, 70.

16. TsAMO, f. 413 (57A), op. 10372, d. 392,11. 6-7 and Zhilin, P. A. et al. eds., Osvoboditel’naia missiia sovetksikh vooruzhennykh sil v Evrope vo vtoroi mirovoi voine: dokumenty i materialy (Moscow, 1985), 106 Google Scholar.

17. Zav’ialov, N. I., Pod zvezdami balkanskimi (Kiev, 1987), 52 Google Scholar; BA, El’kinson, “dnevnik,” 5; Presniakov, B. D., Pod zvezdami balkanskimi (Moscow, 1985), 21 Google Scholar; Romenskii, A. P., ed., Glazami i serdtsem soldata (Moscow, 1979), 118 Google Scholar; Vylitok, V. S., Pod zvezdami balkanskimi (Chişinau, 1984), 28 Google Scholar.

18. Romanian authorities reported that 231 women were raped in the county of Arad in western Romania from 14 September to 5 October. They also noted that 213 women were victimized from 10 October to 19 October in the county of Iaşi. According to the report, the situation was similar in Romania’s other forty counties. If we project the figures from the counties of Arad and Iaşi to Romania’s other counties, then it could be concluded that Romanian authorities received complaints from 17,760 women that they were raped, Constantin Hlihor and loan Scurtu, The Red Army in Romania (Iaşi, 2000), 146-47. Applying Lilly’s formula, it can be estimated that in just thirty-five days the Red Army victimized 355,200 Romanian women. I claim that the Soviets raped more than 355,200 women because there is no data for the period of October 6-9.

19. Andrea Petö, using medical and abortion records, claimed that the Soviet troops raped between fifty and two hundred thousand Hungarian women: Petö, Andrea, “Atvonulo hadsereg, maradando trauma. Az 1945-os budapesti nemi eroszak esetek emlekezete,” Tdrtenelmi Szemle 41 (1999): 86 Google Scholar, cited in Mevius, Martvin, Agents of Moscow: The Hungarian Communist Party and the Origins of Socialist Patriotism 1941-1953 (Oxford, 2005), 62 Google Scholar. Krisztián Ungváry, based on the Wehrmacht’s investigations into Soviet conduct following one of the Axis’ counteroffensives in Hungary, maintained that in many towns the Soviet troops raped between ten and fifteen percent of the female population, Ungváry, Krisztián, The Siege of Budapest: One Hundred Days in World War II, trans. Lob, Ladislaus (New Haven, 2005), 354 Google Scholar. According to historian Horvath Attila, the Soviets raped up to 20 percent of the female population or 800,000 Hungarian women, see the film Silenced Shame. Directed by Fruzsina Skrabski. Budapest, 2013.

20. Slutskii, Zapiski, 127 and Merridale, Catherine, Ivan’s War: Life and Death in the Red Army, 1939-1945 (New York, 2006), 264 Google Scholar.

21. For Vienna see Bischof, Günter, Austria in the First Cold War, 1945-55: The Leverage of the Weak (Basingstoke, 1999), 33 CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For Budapest see Mark, James, “Remembering Rape: Divided Social Memory and the Red Army in Hungary 1944-1945,” Past & Present 188, no. 1 (August 2005): 134 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

22. Slutskii, Zapiski, 127.

23. On the eve of the Iaşi-Chişinau Operation, which led to Soviet entry into the Balkans, the Second and Third Ukrainian Fronts had 1,314,200 troops, according to Krivosheev, ed., Rossiia i SSSR, 297. However, immediately after the operation, on August 29, the general-staff in Moscow permanently recalled the Fifty-second and the Fifth Shock Armies from the Balkans, thereby diminishing the Red Army’s manpower to around one million troops.

24. The Second Ukrainian Front had 580,000 troops in Hungary in late October, according to Nevenkin, Kamen, Take Budapest: The Struggle for Hungary, Autumn 1944 (Stroud, 2012), 57 Google Scholar. The forces of the Third Ukrainian Front and Danube Military Flotilla, in Yugoslavia at this time, numbered 206,500 troops, again see Krivosheev, ed., Rossiia i SSSR, 297. These units reached Hungary in December, bringing the total number of troops to 791,500. In addition, the Third Ukrainian Front was reinforced by the Fourth Guards Army in late November, RGVA, f. 32900, op. 1, d. 183,11.218-21. Thus, the total number of Soviet troops in Hungary was around 900,000.

25. Krivosheev, ed, Rossiia i SSSR, 306.

26. For Yugoslavia see Zolotarev, V. A., et al. eds., Velikaia Otechestvennaia voina 1941-1945 godov: v dvenadtsati tomakh, vol. 3, Krasnaia Armiiav stranakh tsentral’noi, severnoi Evropy i na balkanakh: dokumenty i materialy 1944-1945 (Moscow, 2000), 184 Google Scholar. For Romania see, Ibid., 15. For Hungary see, Ibid, 291. For Austria see, Ibid., 602.

27. For Romania see TsA FSB Rossii, document reproduced in Stepashin, S. V. et al. eds., Organy Gosudarstvennoi Bezopasnosti SSSR v Velikoi Otechestvennoi Voine: Sbornik Doumentov, Tom 5, kniga 1 Vpered na Zapad. 1 ianvaria—30 iunia 1944 goda, (Moscow, 2007), 307 Google Scholar. For Hungary see Zolotarev, et al. eds., Krasnaia Armiia, 290. For Austria see Ibid., 601.

28. Burds, Jeffrey, “Sexual Violence in Europe in World War II, 1939-1945,” Politics & Society 37 (March 2009): 47 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

29. For “Germans are” see TsAMO, f. 1512, op. 1, d. 91,1.193. For the “Heroic fight” see TsAMO, f.96 (68sk), op. 1, d. 242,1.196.

30. VA, f. NOVJ, к. 96, f. 5, d. 1,1. 6, originally from TsAMO, f. 243, op. 250987, d. 16, no page number.

31. Zav’ialov, Podzvezdami, 83; TsAMO, f. 1512 (233sd), op. 1, d. 93,11.197-98.

32. Hamović, S. S. Biriuzovand Rade eds., Beogradska Operacija (Belgrade, 1964), 124 Google Scholar.

33. TsAMO f. 234, op. 2969, d. 28,11. 43-44, document reproduced in Bukharin, I.V. and Stoianovich, S., eds., Otnosheniia Rossii (SSSR) s Iugoslaviei, 1941-1945gg: Dokumenty i materiały (Moscow, 1998), 322-24Google Scholar.

34. TsAMO, f. 1512, op. 1, d. 91,1.193.

35. TsAMO, f. 1512 (233sd), op. 1, d. 34,1.150.

36. TsAMO, f. 1512 (233sd), op. 1, d. 93,1. 264.

37. Ibid.

38. TsAMO f. 234, op. 2969, d. 28,11. 43-44, document reproduced in Bukharin and Stoianovich, eds., Otnosheniia, 322.

39. Wood, Elizabeth Jean, “Armed Groups and Sexual Violence: When Is Wartime Rape Rare?” Politics & Society 37 (March 2009): 140 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

40. Ungváry, The Siege, 344; Bischof, Austria, 37.

41. VA, f. NOVJ, к. 191, f. 1, d. 11,1. И.

42. For 17 October see Ibid., 1. 66. For 26 October see, Ibid., 140. For 29 October see Ibid., 14.

43. Ibid., 9 and Ibid., 66.

44. Đilas, Conversations, 88.

45. Slutskii, Zapiski, 94.

46. Ibid.

47. AJ, f.836—KMJ I—3-b/571, document reproduced in Bukharin and Stoianovich, eds., Otnosheniia, 361-62.

48. Ibid., 363-64.

49. See Slaveski, Filip, The Soviet Occupation of Germany: Hunger, Mass Violence and the Struggle for Peace, 1945-1947 (Cambridge, Eng., 2013), 6 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Applebaum, Anne, Iron Curtain: The Crushing of Eastern Europe 1944-56 (London, 2012), 31 Google Scholar; Beevor, The Fall, 468; Naimark, The Russians, 71; Merridale, Ivan’s War, 323; Ungváry, The Siege, 356.

50. Đilas, Conversations, 89.

51. VA, f. NOVJ, k. 26, f. 8, d. 9,1. 8; VA, f. NOVJ, k. 191, f. 1, d. 11,11.13-14.

52. TsAMO, f. 48a, op. 3410, d. 14, 1. 507, document reproduced in V. A. Zolotarev et al. eds., Arkhiv, Russkii: Velikaia Otechestvennaia. General’nyi shtab v gody Velikoi Otechestvennoi voine 1941-1945 gg. Dokumenty i Materialy 1941—1945gg 23.12 (4) (Moscow, 2001), 484 Google Scholar.

53. VA, f. NOVJ, k. 181, f. 3, d. 41,1.1.

54. For the chief of staff see RGVA, f. 32900, op. 1, d. 186,1.153. For the member of the military council and the chief military prosecutor, Ibid., 162.

55. TsAMO, f. 1512, op. 1, d. 35,1. 285.

56. Ibid., 285.

57. For instances of when the Soviets intervened to protect the Yugoslavs see VA, f. NOVI, k. 371, f. 6, d. 26,1. 1; Ibid., 2. VA, f. NOVI, k. 223, f. 13, d.l, 1. 4; For when they neglected to enforce discipline see VA, f. NOVI, k. 1919, f. 31, d. 6,1.13; VA, f. NOVI, k. 214, f. 6, d. 19,1.1; RGVA, f. 32900, op. 1, d. 192,1.146.

58. For executed sergeant see RGVA, f. 32900, op. 1, d. 183,1. 220. For his counterpart who stole a pocket watch see TsAMO, f. 1512 (233sd), op. 1, d. 93,1.264. Summary punishment usually included ten days of house arrest or a service in a penal unit, but the document did not specify his punishment.

59. For horses see Hlihor and Scurtu, The Red Army in Romania, 116. For watches see Applebaum, Iron Curtain, 27.

60. Interview, Bratislav Filipović, 13 March 2012, Belgrade.

61. RGVA, f. 32900, op .1, d. 412,1.148; Ibid., 168; RGVA, f. 32900, op. 1, d. 337,1.47.

62. TsAMO, f. 1512 (233sd), op. 1, d. 93,1. 211.

63. TsAMO, f. 1512 (233sd), op. 1, d. 34,1.150; Timofejev, Rusi, 229.

64. For death penalty see TsAMO, f. 1512 (233sd), op. 1, d. 34,1.150.

For penal units see RGVA, f. 32905, op. 1, d. 211,1.5. For demotions see RGVA, f. 32900, op. 1, d. 402,1. 325.

65. The NKVD Army for the Protection of the Rear of the Third Ukrainian Front’s regular patrols detained 8,796 soldiers behind the frontlines in October, November and December 1944, the vast majority of them in Yugoslavia (for October see RGVA, f. 32900, op. 1, d .172,1.249; for November see RGVA, f. 32900, op. 1, d. 183,1.179; for December see RGVA, f. 32900, op. 1, d. 220,1.35). In three separate special operations aimed at deserters on the territory of Yugoslavia, in December 1944 and in August 1945, the NKVD Army detained an additional 1,821 soldiers (for December see RGVA, f. 32900, op. 1, d. 183,1.118, and Ibid., 132; for August see RGVA, f. 32900, op. 1, d. 220,1.207). I did not find figures from the NKVD Army of the Second Ukrainian Front, which guarded the rear of the Forty-Sixth Army and the Fifth Air Army, nor the numbers from the command posts (komendutra) whose patrols also detained stragglers and deserters. Taking these into account, there were at least 15,000 stray soldiers on the territory of Yugoslavia who stayed behind the frontlines for anywhere between one day and ten months.

66. Edele, Mark and Geyer, Michael, “States of Exception: The Nazi-Soviet War as a System of Violence, 1939-1945,” in Fitzpatrick, Sheila and Geyer, Michael, eds., Beyond Totalitarianism: Stalinism and Nazism Compared (Cambridge, Eng., 2009), 385-87Google Scholar.

67. For propaganda see RGVA, f. 32900, op. 1, d. 412, For orders see RGVA, f. 32900, op. 1, d. 174,1. 8.

68. Even internationalist intellectuals in the Red Army wanted revenge above all on the territory of the Third Reich, Budnitskii, Oleg and Rupp, Susan, “The Intelligentsia Meets the Enemy: Educated Soviet Officers in Defeated Germany, 1945,” Kritika 10, no. 31 (Summer 2009): 632 Google Scholar.

69. For Belgrade see VA, f. NOVJ, k. 96, f. 1, d. 17,1. 18 and Lobačev, Đorđe, Kad se Volga ulivala u Savu: Moj zivotni roman (Belgrade, 1997), 124 Google Scholar; Subotica—IAS, f. 176, k. 10, “Rad i referat antifašističkog fronta žena u Subotici,” 1. Knjaževac—TsAMO, f. 243, op. 32283, d. 12,11. 409-12, document reproduced in Zolotarev, et al. eds., Krasnaia Armila, 245; Tolbuko, Topola-V. F., Baryshev, N. A., and Chizh, V. F., Ot Vidina do Belgrado: istoriko-memuarnyi ocherk o boevykh deistviiakh sovetskikh tankistov v belgradskoi operaisti (Moscow, 1968), 39 Google Scholar; Zaječar—S. S. Biriuzov, et al. eds., Beogradska Operacija, 219; Novi Sad—Timofejev, Rusi, 193; Požarevac—Zav’ialov, Podzvezdami, 111; Negotin—Zhilin, et al. eds, Osvoboditel’naia missiia, 335-336; Vratarnica-TsAMO, f. 413, op. 10381, d. 16, 1.183, document reproduced in Zolotarev, et al. eds., Krasnaia Armiia, 225.

70. For roads and bridges see Khorkov, A. G., Osvoboditelnaia missia sovetskikh voo-ruzhennykh sil na Balkanakh (Moscow, 1989), 179 Google Scholar and Anoshin, I. S., Na Pravyi boi (Moscow, 1988), 121 Google Scholar. For escorting troops see TsAMO, f. 1512 (233sd), op. 1, d. 91,1. 201. For scouts see, Iashchenko, N. I., “Druzhba, rozhdennaia v boiakh,” recollections reproduced in 73-ia gvardeiskaia: Sbornik vospominanii, dokumentov i materialov o boevom puti 73-i gvardeis-koi strelkovoi Stalingradsko-Dunaiskoi Krasnoznamennoi divizii, ed. Morozov, A. K. et al. (Alma-Ata, 1986), 193 Google Scholar.

71. For batons see Tolbuko, Baryshev and Chizh, Ot Vidina do Belgrada, 203-04. For stones see TsAMO, f. 32, op. 11309, d. 230,11.169-76, document reproduced in Zolotarev, et al., eds., Krasnaia Armiia, 122. For villages seeking to join the Red Army, see TsAMO, f. 1512, op. 1, d. 93,1.192.

72. For Tito see AJ, KMJ I—3-b/57, document reproduced in Bukharin and Stoianovich, eds., Otnosheniia, 363-64. For the Red Army see TsAMO, f. 1512 (233sd), op. 1, d. 93, 212. For the NKVD see RGVA, f. 32900, op. 1, d. 220,1.102.

73. BA, El’kinson Dnevnik, 9-10.

74. Aleksandrov Nikolai Filippovich, interview by A. Petrovich, la pomniu, vospominaniia veteranov VOV, April 4, 2011, http://iremember.ru/memoirs/voditeli/aleksandrov-nikolay-filippovich/ (last accessed May 4, 2016); Ivanov Mikhail Nikolaevich, interview by N. Choban, la pomniu, vospominaniia veteranov VOV, May 3, 2012, http://iremember.ru/memoirs/artilleristi/ivanov-mikhail-nikolaevich/ (last accessed May 4,2016).

75. For comparisons between Yugoslavia and heaven see Mikhin, Petr, Guns against the Reich: Memoirs of a Soviet Artillery Officer on the Eastern Front (Mechanicsburg, 2011), 144 Google Scholar; and Shop Solomon Gershevich, interview by G. Koifman la pomniu, vospominaniia veteranov VOV, April 20, 2008, http://iremember.ru/memoirs/saperi/shop-solomon-gershevich/ (last accessed May 4, 2016); for Belgrade see Nadežda Vdovina, “Sećanje crvenoarmejke na oslobadanje Beograda,” Vesti Online, May 9,2013, at http://www.vesti-online.com/Vesti/Srbija/311930/Secanje-crvenoarmejke-na-oslobadanje-Beograda (last accessed on January 18, 2016). For flat expanses see BA, El’kinson Dnevnik, 9. For mountains see Skomorokhov, N. M., Boem zhivet istrebitel’:Dokumental’naia povest (Moscow: Voenizdat, 1975), 201 Google Scholar.

76. Mikhin, Guns against the Reich, 146-47; BA, El’kinson Dnevnik, 9.

77. RGVA, f. 32900, op. 1, d. 402,1. 245. This document was written by the political department of the Third Ukrainian Front, which was alarmed at the fact that these letters revealed military secrets. The political department claimed that letters were sent to Romania, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia, all the places where the Third Ukrainian Front had a presence. However, considering the differences between the Romanian and Russian languages, the vast majority of the letters were almost certainly sent to Bulgarians and Yugoslavs.

78. Interview, Bratislav Filipović, March 13,2012, Belgrade.

79. Interview, Nadežda Đurišić, April 17, 2012, Negotin.

80. Interview, Živojin Ilić, April 19, 2014, Štubik.

81. Interview, Divna Protić, May 31, 2012, Belgrade. They exchanged letters after the war, while the captain paid him a visit during one of the joint Soviet-Yugoslav celebrations on the anniversary of the liberation of Belgrade. Their children continued the relationship. The captain’s daughter with her husband visited Protić and his daughter Divna. In 1972, Divna, who was eighteen in 1944, visited the captain and his daughter during her visit to Moscow. They lost contact after their fathers died.

82. Interview, Milica Novaković, April 4, 2012, Belgrade; Interview, Grgo Bačlija, May 16, 2012, Subotica; Interview, Živojin Gligorijević, Toronto, January 2014.

83. Interview, Božidar Stojanović, Apri] 24,2012, Negotin; Interview, Mihajlo Đurišić, 17 April 2012, Negotin; Skype Interview, Voja Čolanović, January 2014, Toronto-Belgrade.

84. VA, f. NOVJ, k. 28, f. 1, d. 1,1.6.

85. Tolbuko, Baryshev, and Chizh, Or Vidina do Belgrado, 226.

86. For rapes, see VA, f. NOVJ, k. 222, f. Ik, d. 20, 11. 1-2. For robberies see RGVA, f. 32900, op. 1, d. 186,1.162 and IAS, f. 82, k. 95, “Spisi narodne milicije. Telefonski izvesštaj primljen dana 4. juna 1945 god.”

87. VA, f. NOVJ, k. 222, f. 1k, d. 50,1.2.

88. RGVA, f. 32900, op. 1, d. 188,1.166.

89. TsAMO, f. 1512 (233sd), op. 1, d. 91,1.201.

90. TsGA KAZSSR, f. 1660, op. 1, d. 196,11.19-20, letter reproduced in 73-ia gvardeis-kaia, ed. A. K. Morozov et al. (Alma-Ata, 1986), 228.

91. Mart Aleksandrovich Stalin, Vospominaniia o sobytiakh v moei zhizni v predvoennye gody i vo vremia Velikoi Otechestvennoi Voiny (19371945). V chetyrekh chastiakh s Prilozheniem ‘0 moei perepiske s roditeliami vo vremia voiny,’” from personal family collection of Vladimir Ryzhkovsky. I would like to thank Vladimir for providing me with his grandfather’s recollections and letters.

92. Zav’ialov, Podzvezdami, 127-128; Biriuzov, S. S., Surovyegody (Moscow, 1966), 481 Google Scholar; Anoshin, Na Pravyi boi, 133.

93. Slutskii, Zapiski, 91.

94. Timofejev, Rusi, 195.

95. BA, El’kinson Dnevnik, 7.

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101. Mikhin, Guns against the Reich, 155.

102. Slutskii, Zapiski, 67-68.

103. Mikhin, Guns against the Reich, 174.

104. VA, f. NOVJ, f. 1919, f. 31, d. 6,1.13.

105. RGVA, f. 32900, op. 1, d. 412,1.176.

106. VA, f. NOVJ, k.1919, f.31, d.6, 1. 13. Tito subsequently highlighted this incident as an example of a major irritation when he complained to Stalin about the Red Army’s conduct, AJ, f.836—KMJ I—3-b/571, document reproduced in Bukharin and Stoianovich, eds., Otnosheniia, 363.

107. AJ, f.836—KMJ I—3-b/571, document reproduced in Bukharin and Stoianovich, eds., Otnosheniia, 363.

108. VA, f. NOVJ, k. 1919, f. 31, d. 6,1.13.

109. VA, f. NOVJ, k. 214, f. 5, d. 21, Ił. 1-2.

110. Merridale, Ivan’s War, 272-75.

111. Bischl, Kerstin, “Telling Stories: Gender Relationships and Masculinity in the Red Army 1941-1945,” in Roger, Maren and Leiserowitz, Ruth, eds., Women and Men at War: A gender Perspective on World War II and its Aftermath in Central and Eastern Europe (Osnabrück, 2012), 119 Google Scholar.

112. Markwick, Roger D. and Cardona, Euridice Charon, Soviet Women on the Frontline in the Second World War (Basingstoke, 2012), 79 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

113. Slutskii, Zapiski, 78.

114. Ibid., 180.

115. Interview, Vera Protić, March 13,2012, Belgrade.

116. IAS, f. 83, “Mesnim narodnim odborima Pov. Br 145/45 dana 20.IX.1945.”

117. TsAMO, f. 48a, op. 3410, d. 14, И. 507, document reproduced in Zolotarev et al. eds., General’nyi shtab, 483-84.

118. VA, f. NOVJ, k. 371, f. 6, d. 26,1.1.

119. Ibid., 3.

120. Ibid., 3.

121. RGVA, f. 32900, op. 1, d. 337,1. 27.

122. RGVA, f. 32900, op. 1, d. 341,1.108.

123. VA, f. NOVJ, k. 371, f. 6, d. 26,1. 2.

124. RGVA, f. 32900, op. 1, d. 341,1.108; For Zaječar, see IAZ, f. Sreski Narodni Odbor Zaječar godina 1944, k.2, “Sreski narodni odbor u Zaječaru dana 25 novembra 1944 godine doneo je sledeće.” Zaječar municipal authorities revoked the license from a local tavern owner for repeatedly violating the ban on the sale of alcohol to soldiers. I have found three separate attempts to impose similar restrictions in Subotica, the last order threatening repeat offenders to six months of forced labour, IAS, f.68, k.1521, “8 marta 1945 god. Grad-skom Narodno Sslobidlačkom Odboru grada Subotica. Od šéfa odeljka národne milicije, kapetan Stevanović.”

125. Naimark, The Russians, 113.

126. TsAMO, f. 1512 (233sd), op. 1, d. 93,1. 258.

127. For civilian testimonies about the conduct of stray soldiers in Hungary see interview with Ujj Miklosne at 00.51 in Silenced Shame. Directed by Fruzsina Skrabski. Budapest, 2013.

For Romanian government’s analysis see Hlihor and Scurtu, The Red Army in Romania, 145. For the Yugoslav police analysis of the contribution to the growth of criminality by stray Soviet soldiers see IAS, f. 83, k. 23, “Mesnim narodnim odborima Pov. Br 145/45 dana 20.IX.1945.”

128. RGVA, f. 32900, op. 1, d. 218,1.43

129. RGVA, f. 32900, op. 1, d. 183,1.118, Ibid., 132; RGVA, f. 32900, op. 1, d. 220,1. 207.

130. RGVA, f. 3290o, op. 1, d. 220,1.102.

131. Ibid., 210.

132. RGVA, f. 32905, op. 1, d. 128,11. 44-45; RGVA, f. 32900, op. 1, d. 220,1.104; 133.Ibid.

134. Brownmiller, Susan, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape (New York, 1975), 64 Google Scholar.

135. Roberts, Mary Louise, What Soldiers Do: Sex and the American GI in World War II France (Chicago, 2013), 7 CrossRefGoogle Scholar and 95-96.

136. Ibid., 7-9.

137. According to one estimate, the Americans victimized 208 women in the department of Manche, see Wieviorka, Normandy, 329. This would indicate that throughout the country there were thousands of victims.

138. For how American and Soviet soldiers consumed alcohol see Naimark, The Russians, 113. Forty thousand American soldiers deserted in France, and around 10,000 were absent without leave (stragglers), Rose, Kenneth D., Myth and the Greatest Generation: A Social History of Americans in World War II (New York, 2008), 67 Google Scholar. This contrasts sharply with the fact that more than four million Soviet troops were charged with straggling and deserting, while undoubtedly millions more were returned to their units without being officially charged, Reese, Roger R., Why Stalin’s Soldiers Fought: The Red Army’s Military Effectiveness in World War II (Lawrence, 2011), 20 Google Scholar.