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33. I thank my reviewer for raising up this question.

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35. Frederick Winslow Taylor, the “father” of scientific management, was characterized by Molnár as representing redundant and inhumane western forms of knowledge, although he must have been well aware of the great impact of Taylorism in the early Soviet Union. See, for example, Hughes, Thomas P., American Genesis: A Century of Invention and Technological Enthusiasm, 1870–1970 (New York, 1989), 256–58Google Scholar.

36. Molnár, “A munkalélektan mai feladatai,” 32–34.

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41. HU-MNL-MK-S Társadalomtudományi intézet 904 f./2 cs./56 ő.e. (Üzemszociológiai jellegű vizsgálat a Lenin Kohászati Művekben, 1965).

42. HU-MNL-MK-S 288 f. 904 /Agitáció és Propaganda Osztály. Társadalomtudományi intézet. 2 cs./56 ő.e. (Rövid áttekintés a munkásosztály helyzetével kapcsolatos üzemi pszichológiai vizsgálatokról, 26).

43. HU-MNL MK-S Társadalomtudományi intézet 904 f./2 cs./56 ő.e. (Üzemszociológiai Vizsgálat a Diósgyőri Gépgyárban, 1964).

44. György Kerekes, personal interview, Budapest, April 14, 2012.

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47. See biography available at http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01937/html/szerviz/kislex/biograf/kerigyor.htm (last accessed January 7, 2019).

48. HU-MNL-MKS. MSZMP Agitáció és Propaganda Osztály. 904 f. /12 cs. /72 ő.e. (“Vita a munkáról” az Élet és Irodalom című irodalmi és politikai hetilapban), 21–22.

49. HU-MNL-MKS. MSZMP 904 f. /12 cs. /72 ő.e, 22.

50. Ibid., 23–25.

51. Ibid., 26.

52. Ibid., 7–8.

53. Andrzej Czechowicz, HU OSA 300–8-3–4574, Radio Free Europe (RFE), “Training of Management Cadres in Poland: Summary.” Eastern Europe: Background reports and situation rep., December 14, 1965, p. 7. [Electronic Record], http://hdl.handle.net/10891/osa:df24b7d2-078b-403b-b8d9-125d448fa5e1 (last accessed 19 February 2019). See also Mazurek, “Between Sociology and Ideology,” 15–16.

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60. Haney, Inventing the Needy, 94; Gough, Roger, A Good Comrade: János Kádár, Communism, and Hungary (London, 2006), 54Google Scholar.

61. See, for example, Rókusfalvy, Pál, “A Fluktuáció mint munkapszichológiai probléma,” Gazdaság- és jogtudomány 4, no. 3–4 (1970): 326–32Google Scholar; Gelléri, Péter, ”Személyiség-lélektani tényezők szerepe a gyakran munkahelyet változtatók magatartásában,” in Gazdaság- és jogtudomány 4, no. 3–4 (1970): 367–72Google Scholar; Engländer, Tibor and Bánkutiné, Éva Csoór, eds., Üzempszichológia: válogatott tanulmányok (Budapest, 1974)Google Scholar.

62. HU-MNL MK-S 288 f. 904, 2 cs./56 ő.e., 22–23.

63. HU-MNL MK-S 288 f. 5/395 ő.e. Jegyzőkönyv a Politikai Bizottság 1966. Május 10-én tartott üléséről, 2. Előterjesztés a vállalatok vezetőinek tovább képzésére—Az új gazdaságirányítási rendszer követelményeiből fakadóan, 2.

64. HU-MNL MK-S 288 f., MSZMP Központi Bizottsága Agitációs és Propaganda Bizottságának (APB) iratai. Jegyzőkönyv 1966. augusztus 3-i üléséről, 1.

65. HU-MNL MK-S 288 f., MSZMP Központi Bizottsága Agitációs és Propaganda Bizottságának (APB) iratai. Jegyzőkönyv 1966. augusztus 3-i üléséről. Javaslat a KB Agitációs és Propaganda Bizottság részére a gazdasági vezetők továbbképzésének alapjául szolgáló tematikára, 8.

66. HU-MNL M-KS 228 f. 904/2 állag/39 ő.e /1967/Társadalomtudományi intézet. Feljegyzés Lakos Elvtárs részére. Megjegyzések a “Vezetési, szervezési ismeretek” c. előadássorozat programjához.

67. For example, in 1967 a Hungarian delegation returning from the GDR reported on the introduction of a “human factor” in the way work was now being planned there. The delegation was convinced that East German achievements in the field of management education were promising, and they suggested that Hungarians should also take heed. See HU-MNL MK-S 288 f., MSZMP Központi Bizottsága Agitációs és Propaganda Osztályának (APO) iratai. 1967, 20. őe. Jelentés az NDK-ban járt pártküldöttség útjáról.

68. “The 24th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Tasks of Soviet Psychology, Soviet Psychology 10, vol.4 (summer 1972), 324–25.”

69. Riska-Campbell, Leena, Bridging East and West: The Establishment of the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) in the United States Foreign Policy of Bridge Building, 1964–1972 (Helsinki, 2011), 29–89Google Scholar.

70. These exports probably had an ideological and political subtext of promoting western methods in order to undermine socialist institutions. However, this article is not the place for that discussion. See Kott, “The Social Engineering Project,” 137.

71. Czechowicz, “Training of Management Cadres in Poland,” 14.

72. ILO had also been instrumental in getting six-month scholarships for 43 Polish experts, which permitted them to study the art of modern management in the west.

73. Bálint, István & Murányi, Mihály, Munkalélektan műszaki és gazdasági vezetők részére (Budapest, 1973), 1–20Google Scholar. Indeed, there was a real need for management books in Hungarian. As noted by Sandrine Kott, between 1969 and 1971, 1,454 individuals in Hungary attended the courses offered by the Management Centre in Budapest, see Kott, “The Social Engineering Project,” 136.

74. HU-MNL-MK-S 288 f. 904, 2 cs./56 ő.e, 26, 33. According to the report, there were 500 large state enterprises in the country. At the turn of the ’70s, there were psychological laboratories in only 30 of them.

75. Ibid, 3–4, 27, 33. Testifying to the “atomized” nature of work, in 25 of these laboratories psychologists worked alone.

76. Zsille, Zoltán, “Pszichológia az iparban (Riport és tanmese)” Valóság 14, no. 7 (1971), 45Google Scholar.

77. HU-MNL-MK-S 288 f. 904, 2 cs./56 ő.e, 2–4.

78. Ibid., 3.

79. Ibid., 6–8. Only the cases of silicosis and lead poisoning had really decreased in number.

80. Hunyady, György, Pataki, Ferenc & Szilágyi, Ibolya Váriné, eds., Szociálpszichológiai kutatások Magyarországon (Budapest, 1976)Google Scholar.

81. Social psychologist Ferenc Mérei was a pioneer of social psychology and socially oriented (társas) child psychology, but his professional activities extended also to clinical psychology, psychodrama and the psychology of art. He also had a background in communist politics and infighting after the war, culminating in a prison sentence and academic marginalization in 1959.

82. Ferenc Pataki, personal interview, Budapest, September 27, 2013.

83. Sándor Erdősi, “A vezetés néhány szociálpszichológiai feltételének vizsgálati módszere egy vidéki nagyvállalatnál,” in Szociálpszichológiai kutatások Magyarországon, 147–156.

84. Ferenc Mérei, Közösségek rejtett hálózata: a szociometriai értelmezés (Budapest, 1971), 5.

85. István Fehér, “A demokratikus vezetés pszichológiai elemei,” in Szociálpszichológiai kutatások Magyarországon, 218–28.

86. See, for example, “Fourth Congress of the Psychological Society of the USSR,” Soviet Psychology 10, no. 4 (1972), 398–99Google Scholar.

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88. Miklós Kun was oriented towards social psychiatry at the Lipotmező Hospital in Budapest. The “marathon session” was first tested out by a “methodological committee” at the Iron and Steel Workers’ Sports Club in the Angyalföld workers’ district. In this therapy session, group members included a sports school director, teachers, coaches, and assistant coaches.

89. Fehér, “A demokratikus vezetés,” 218.

90. Ibid.

91. Ibid.

92. Ibid., 221.

93. Ibid.

94. Ibid., 223.

95. Reference group referred to the group of people by which the individuals measured and evaluated their own behavior and thinking; and Fehér noted that the participants were actually starting to think “what would I do, if I were they?”

96. Fehér, “A demokratikus vezetés,” 223.

97. Ibid.

98. Ibid., 225.

99. Ibid., 227.

100. János László, personal interview, Budapest, April 19, 2012. Cf. János Füredi & Ferenc Szakács, “Csoportos pszichoterápia kettős vezetésével,” Orvosi Hetilap, November 16, 1969; Hidas, György & Szőnyi, Gábor, “A Pszichoterápiás Hétvégekről és a nagycsoport-ról (Hozzászólás Szerdahelyi Szabolcs dr. vitacikkéhez,” Magyar Pszichológiai Szemle 34, no. 3 (1977): 285–89Google Scholar.

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102. Ibid., 183.

103. Ibid., 178.

104. Tóth, Eszter Zsófia “‘Mindenki . . . úgy ment oda, hogy ez a világcsúcs’ (Munkásnő ország-gyűlési képviselők megéléstörténetei a szocialista időszakról),” Aetas 22, no. 2 (2007), 59Google Scholar. For a sharply critical analysis of “piece-work” in Hungarian factories, see Haraszti, Miklós, A Worker in a Workers’ State (New York, 1977)Google Scholar.

105. Mérei, Közösségek rejtett hálózata, 5. Mérei's book is also remembered for its symbolic value to his followers at the time. Indeed, using the word “hidden” in the title implied the legitimacy of small social circles, which were presumably not being controlled by the regime.

106. Ibid., 204.

107. Rose, Inventing Our Selves, 136–40.

108. See also the psychological guidebook for the managers by Bálint & Murányi, 296–97. The authors enumerate over two dozen personality features suitable for a leader, such as enthusiasm, entrepreneurship, ambition, originality, ability to overcome obstacles, and self-control, but also friendliness, politeness, sense of humor, knowledge of human nature, and “phlegmatic blood temperature” (cool-headedness).

109. See Laine-Frigren, Searching for the Human Factor, 254–94.

110. See also Pléh, Csaba, History and Theories of the Mind (Budapest, 2008), 190Google Scholar.

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