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Problems of Persuasion: Communist Agitation and Propaganda in Post-war Yugoslavia, 1944-1948

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 January 2017

Carol S. Lilly
Carol S. Lilly*
Affiliation:
The Department of History, University of Nebraska, Kearney
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Extract

Following the devastation of World War II, the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (CPY) called on all patriotic youth to join volunteer labor brigades and to rebuild the country's shattered infrastructure. Party propaganda for the brigades emphasized not only their economic function but also their role in nurturing a generation of people with new values, beliefs and standards of behavior.

Type
Research Article
Information
Slavic Review , Volume 53 , Issue 2 , Summer 1994 , pp. 395 - 413
Copyright
Copyright © Association for Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies. 1994

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References

1. Slavko Komar, “Radni polet omladine,” Borba, 1 May 1945.

2. Mihailo Švabić, “O omladinskoj pruzi,” 15–16 April 1947, AJ, SSOJ-37.

3. Rato Dugonjić, “Diskusija o referatu Švabićaa,” 15–16 April 1947, AJ, SSOJ-37.

4. “Govor Maršala Tita na svečanosti prilikom puštanja u saobracćj Omladinske pruge Šamac-Sarajevo,” Borba, 17 November 1947.

5. Idealistic plans for a “new and better” postwar society were not unique to the CPY or to communists in general. See, for example, Wilkinson, James D., The Intellectual Resistance in Europe, (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1981)Google Scholar. But while leftist intellectuals throughout Europe shared many ideals, only ruling communist parties had to confront directly the contradictions between their immediate need to maintain power and their broader ideological program.

6. The separate functions of agitation and propaganda as terms relating to methods of communist indoctrination were first elaborated by G.V. Plekhanov. But although Plekhanov clearly differentiated between the two techniques, CPY leaders did not. In this article, therefore, CPY persuasive activities will be covered by the lump term agitprop.

7. Despite some similarity here to the gramscian concept of “hegemony,” there is no reason to believe that CPY leaders had been in touch with the Italian communist or were aware of his writings, most of which were not published until the late 1950s. Rather, CPY notions about the cultural transformation were drawn directly from Orthodox marxism-leninism. Unlike Gramsci, who insisted that cultural hegemony must precede the assumption of political power, the Yugoslav communists sought victory first in the political arena, then in economics and only thirdly in the sphere of culture.

8. Milovan Djilas, “Svim CK-ima i PK-ima o reorganizaciji agitacije i propagande,” 6 September 1945, IRP, CKKPH; “O agitaciono-propagandnim radu KPJ,” 1945, ACKSKJ, CKKPJAP VIII I/2-a-35. For a detailed summary of the organizational structure and tasks of the Serbian department of agitation and propaganda, see Dimi ć , Ljubodrag, Agitprop kultura: agitpropovska faza kulturne politike u Srbiji, 1945–1952, (Beograd: 1988)Google Scholar.

9. It may be argued with some justification that this phase actually began either with the second meeting of AVNOJ in November 1943 or with the final liberation of Yugoslavia in April 1945. I have chosen the median date based on the liberation of Belgrade because in the former period so much of the Party's attention focused on efforts to liberate the country, while to begin the examination only in April 1945 would exclude from consideration the extremely vigorous persuasive campaigns that developed in winter 1944–1945.

10. “Sednica CK KPJ,” 21 November 1947, ACKSKJ, PB III/30; “Zapisnik sa sastanka sa drugovima Kardeljom, Djilasom, Kidričem i Krstom Popivodom,” 1947, AJ, SSOJ F28.

11. “Zapisnik sa sastanka agitpropa, 5 February 1948, ACKSKJ, CKKPJAP VIII II/ 2.b-6.

12. “Organizacione primjedbe na našu agitaciju i propagandu,” 1947, IRP, ZV NOH-29; Zdenka Šegvić, “Problemi na še štampe od oslobodjenja do danas i njezine slabosti,” May 1948, ACKSKJ, CKKPJAP VIII II/5-b-25. See also Vladimir Dedijer, “Uloga štampe i njeno mesto u partiskom radu,” 24 October 1947, ACKSKJ, CKKPJAP VIII IV-a-2.

13. “Zapisnik sa savjetovanja iz Komiteta za kinematografiju,” 2 March 1948, ACKSKJ, CKKPJAP VIII II/4-d-9.

14. “Izvještaj o kulturno-prosvjetnom radu,” Fall 1947, IRP, CKKPHAP; “Zapisnik sa savetovanja kulturnog sektora u agitpropima CK i PK po pitanju kulturno-masovnog rada,” 20 January 1948, ACKSKJ, CKKPJAP VIII II/4-d-4; “Rezolucija o neposrednim zadacima organizacije Saveza sindikata,” 24–29 October 1948, AJ, CVSSJ F3.

15. On differences within the CPY over the socialization of agriculture, see Johnson, A. Ross, The Transformation of Communist Ideology: The Yugoslav Case, 1945–1953. (Boston: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1972), 95 n.80Google Scholar. For a recent approach to disagreements with Croat communist leader Andrija Hebrang, see Irvine, Jill, The Croat Question, Partisan Politics in the Formation of the Yugoslav Socialist State (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993 Google Scholar.

16. A pair of internal documents from 1945 on the republic press neatly presents the Party's dilemma with regard to the national question. One report criticized the newspaper of the People's Front of Montenegro for its failure to “concretize” general Yugoslav issues in a way appropriate to Montenegrin circumstances, while the other attacked the newspaper of the People's Front of Croatia for its “separatist tendencies” and failure to adopt campaigns established by the Party's central newspaper, Borba ('Izveštaj o listu Pobeda,” 1945, ACKSKJ, CKKPJAP VIII VI/l-b-9; “Izveštaj o Hstu Naprijed,” 1945, ACKSKJ, CKKPJAP VIII VI/l-b-8).

17. “Govor Maršala Tita na proslavi oslobodjenja Kragujevca,” Seljačka borba, 25 October 1945.

18. “O agitaciono-propagandnim radu KPJ,” 1945.

19. “Prilozi prvom zapisniku Prosvetnog saveta pri MP savezne vlade,” 6–16 August 1945, AJ, MP-9; “Na zasedanju Prosvetnog saveza Jugoslavije zaključeno je da se pitanje udžbenika najhitnije resš,” Borba, 19 August 1945. Evidently, Mencej's insistence on adherence to the Soviet model remained firm over time for he was expelled from the CPY as a cominformist agent in 1951.

20. Report of the Ministry of Education, 1945, ACKSKJ, X2-II/4.

21. N. N., “Zadaci Komiteta za škole i nauku,” Savremena škola 1, no. 1 (July 1946); Boris Ziherl, 14 July 1946, AJ, KSN-17.

22. Kosta Grubačić, “O nekim nedostacima rada na polju narodne prosvjete,” Borba, 4 October 1947.

23. Franc Ostanek, “Nastavni planovi i programe za osnovne škole,” Savremena “ škola 3, no. 2–3 (1948); “Zapisnik sa savjetovanja sa drugovima iz KŠN,” Strictly Confidential, 2 March 1948, ACKSKJ, CKKPJAP VIII II/4-d-10; “Savezna konferencija o pitanjima opšteobrazovanih srednjih škola znači krupan doprinos u razvoju našeg novog školstva,” Prosvetni radnik, 1 June 1948; “Obrazovanje našeg čoveka,” 1949, ACKSKJ, CKKPJAP VIII II/8-d-35.

24. “Deveta sednica Prezidijuma Narodne skupštine FNRJ,” 11 December 1948, in Nešović, Slobodan, ed., Sednice Prezidijuma Narodne skupštine FNRJ (prvog i drugog saziva, 4. februar 1946–9. januar 1953) (Belgrade, 1956)Google Scholar. This organizational form was also short lived and was replaced in 1950 by the Council for Science and Culture.

25. “Zapisnik o idejno-političkom radu na Omladinskoj pruzi,” 12–13 September 1946, AJ, SSOJ F37.

26. Rato Dugonjić, “Diskusija o referatu Švabićaa,” 15–16 April 1947; “Zapisnik sa pretsednicima glavnih odbora,” 24 June 1947, AJ, SSOJ F57.

27. One internal report complained that even the department of agitation and propaganda worked “according to ‘its own agitprop line, ’ approaching party problems in a one-sided manner” (“Direktivno pismo Uprave za agitaciju i propagandu,” 1948, ACKSKJ, CKKPJAP VIII II/l-a-13).

28. Radovan Zogović is undoubtedly one of the more intriguing characters in the cast of CPY cultural policies. A poet of unquestioned talent (Krleža called him “brilliant “), the Montenegrin communist was also notorious as Yugoslavia's prime defender of socialist realism and the theories of Todor Pavlov and Andrei Zhdanov. Although Zogović's contemporaries invariably noted his acidic and unyielding temperament in their descriptions, they also usually expressed admiration for his absolute dedication to the cause of communism and for his incorruptible nature. But although top CPY leaders were reputedly “fond” of Zogović and willing to forgive him much, eventually his refusal to bend brought him down. Having received already a “serious reprimand” during the Second World War for “leftist errors,” Zogović was expelled from the CPY in late 1948 as a Cominformist supporter. See Milomir Marić, “Prkosne strofe Radovana Zogovića,” 3 parts, Duga, nos. 311–313 (25 January-22 February 1986); Josip Pavičić, “Uz smrt Radovana Zogovića: Trajno ime poezije” Vjesnik, 11 (7 January 1986); Milovan Djilas, Wartime (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1977), 163–64; Djilas, Milovan, Rise and Fall (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1983), 223 Google Scholar.

29. Rato Dugonjić, “Rezime po pitanju odbora USAOJ-a,” March 1945, ACKSKJ, CKSKOJ IIa-1/2.

30. See for example: Rato Dugonjić, “Rezime po pitanju odbora USAOJ-a;” “Zapisnik sa sastanka PK SKOJ,” 21 July 1945, IRP, PKSKOJ-H-1; “Zapisnik sa sastankaUK,” 21 June 1946, Zapisnici i izveštaji univerzitetskog komiteta Komunističke partije Srbije, 1945–1948 (ZIUKKPS) (Belgrade, 1985) 77–79; Četvrti sastanak Pretsednistva CV NOJ,” 15–17 September 1947, AJ, SSOJ-37; “Izveštaj PK SKOJa za Bosnu i Her cegovinu,” 30 September 1948, ACKSKJ, CK SKOJ IIIb-4/17.

31. “Izvještaj rukovodioca SKOJ VIII udarničke divizijejugoslovenske armije,” 28 June 1945, IRP, PKSKOJ-H-1; “Sednica CK KPJ,” 25 November 1945, ACKSKJ, PB III/8; “Zapisnik sa sastanka UK,” 21 June 1946, ZIUKKPS, 77–79; “Izvještaj o radu CK KPH,” 27 January 1947, IRP, CKKPH; Stanje SKOJ-evske organizacije u Srbiji i zadaci,” January 1948, ACKSKJ, CKSKOJ IIa-2/4.

32. “Zapisnik sa sastanka UK,” 21 June 1946.

33. “Stenografske beleške sa Savetovanja CK SKOJ,” 28 September 1946, ACKSKJ, CKSKOJ IIa-1/1; “Četvrti sastanak Pretsedništva CV NOJ;” “Zapisnik sa sastanka UK,” 18 September 1947, ZIUKKPS, 258; “Izveštaj o radu PK SKOJ za Srbiju u toku 1947 g.,” 21 January 1948, ACKSKJ, CKSKOJ IIIb-1/10.

34. “Zapisnik sa sastanka UK,” 21 June 1946.

35. “O Savezu Komunističke omladine Jugoslavije,” 1947, ACKSKJ, CKSKOJ IIc-1/42.

36. “O Savezu Komunističke omladine Jugoslavije;” Eduard Kardelj, “Referati i diskusije sa V kongresa KPJ,” 21–28 July 1948, ZIUKKPS, 437–38; Četvrti kongres SKOJa i Zajednički kongres SKOJ-a i NOJ, 1948, ed., Miroljub Vasic, Izvori za istoriju SKJ, (Belgrade: 1985).

37. Bilandžić, Dušan, Historija Socijalističke Federativne Republike Jugoslavije: Glavni procesi, 1918–1985 (Zagreb: 1985) 101 Google Scholar; Morača, Pero and Stojanovi ć, Stanislav, eds., Povijest Saveza komunista Jugoslavije (Beograd: 1985), 322 Google Scholar.

38. Youth played an extremely important role in the war, making up some 75% of all Partisan units (Dušan Bilandžic, Historija Socijalističke Federativne Republike Jugoslavije, 88).

39. “Referat o ideološkom odgoju komunista,” 8 December 1946, IRP, CKKPH.

40. “Zapisnik sa sastanka Agitpropa PK KPH za Dalmaciju,” 7 June 1947, IRP, CKKPHAP; “Opci pregled rada agitpropa OK KPH-a za Dalmaciju,” 2 November 1946, IRP, CKKPHAP.

41. See: “Izvještaj OO USAOH za Dalmaciju,” 30 August 1945, IRP, USAOH-17; “Opći pregled rada agitpropa OK KPH-a za Dalmaciju;” “Organizacione primjedbe na našu agitaciju i propagandu “; Veljko Zekovic, “Marksističko-lenjinističko vaspitanje kadrova,” Borba, 8 July 1948.

42. “Izveštaj o radu Ministarstva prosvjete,” October-November 1945, ACKSKJ, X2-II/4.

43. “Izvještaj agitpropa MK KPH Rijeka,” 19 September 1947, IRP, CKKPHAP; Zdenka Šegvić, “Referat o radu TANJUGa,” 15 September 1945, ACKSKJ, CKKPJAP VIII II/5-d-85.

44. “Sednica CK KPJ sa birom CK KPH,” 5 December 1945, ACKSKJ, PB 111/10.

45. “Organizacione primjedbe na našu agitaciju i propagandu “; “Kratka analiza naše štampe,” 1 October 1947, ACKSKJ, CKKPJAP VIII VI/l-b-24; Vladimir Dedijer, “Uloga štampe i njeno mesto u partiskom radu “; “Pregled Rad-a,” 12 November 1948, ACKSKJ, CKKPJAP VIII II/4-d-14; Zdenka Šegvić, “Problemi naše štampe od oslobodjenja do danas i njezine slabosti. “

46. Report from the propaganda department of the Main Council of the USAOH to the CO USAOJ, 3 July 1945, IRP, USAOH-17.

47. Vladimir Dedijer, “Uloga štampe i njeno mesto u partiskom radu.” See also “Kratka analiza naše štampe “; “Ustanove i organizacije koje rukovode štampom i sistem rukovodjenja,” May 1948, ACKSKJ, CKKPJAP VII II/5-b-25.

48. “Agitacija i propaganda,” 1945, IRP, USAOH-17.

49. Dragiša M. Ivanović, “Zapisnik sa pretkongresne konferencije partijske ćelije nastavnika i administratora Beogradskog univerziteta,” 19 June 1948, ZIUKKPS, 386; “Mesnom komitetu KPS,” 5 November 1946, ZIUKKPS, 118–20; “Zapisnik sa sastanka UK KPS, 3 April 1947, ZIUKKPS, 178; “Zagrebačko sveučilište,” Dinko Tomašič Collection, Hoover Institution.

50. Kosta Grubačić, “Konferencija prosvetnih radnika Srbije, Vojvodine, Kosova, i Metohije,” Borba, 16 October 1945; Boris Ziherl, “Zadaci našeg skolstva i naucnih ustanova,” Savremena škola 1, no. 3 (September 1946) 145–64.

51. “Idejno-politički rad u masama,” 1947–1948, ACKSKJ, CKKPJAP VIIIII/6–10; “Zapisnik sa savjetovanja sa drugovima iz KŠN “; “Sistem nastave na Beogradskom univerzitetu “; “Obrazovanje našeg čoveka. “

52. Radovan Zogović, “Primjer kako ne treba praviti ‘primjere književnosti',” Borba, 8 May 1947.

53. “Referat o ideološkom odgoju komunista. “

54. “Zapisnik sa sastanka PK SKOJ-H,” 3 September 1948, IRP, PKSKOJ-H-3; “Rad PK SKOJ-a za Srbiju u 1948 godini,” December 1948, ACKSKJ, CKSKOJ Illb-1/18; Stojan Bjelajac, “O mobilizaciju omladine za izgradnju Autoputa i Beograda,” Partijska izgradnja 1, no. 3 (May 1949): 45–49.

55. Stojan Bjelajac, “Naši privredni zadaci u trećoj planskoj godini,” at XII Plenum, 20–21 February 1949, AJ, SSOJ F28.

56. “Izveštaj o agitaciji i propagandi,” 1949, ACKSKJ, VIII II/5-a-6; “Zaključci XIV Plenuma Centralnog komiteta Narodne omladine Jugoslavije,” 7 January 1950, AJ, SSOJ F29.

57. See for example, Banac, Ivo, With Stalin Against Tito (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988, 134–36Google Scholar; Djilas, Milovan, Rise and Fall (New York, San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1985), 197, 203 Google Scholar; Rusinow, Dennison, The Yugoslav Experiment, 1948–1974 (Berkeley: Published for the Royal Institute of International Affairs, London, by the University of California, 1978), 34. 1 Google Scholar. Not the first such attempt, of course, but sufficiently different from the previous ones to make it worth the effort, I hope. My greatest debt is to the work of Ronald Grigor Suny, most recently summarized in his The Revenge of the Past: Nationalism, Revolution, and the Collapse of the Soviet Union (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993). On the last three decades, see also Farmer, Kenneth C., Ukrainian Nationalism in the Post-Stalin Era (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1980 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lapidus, Gail Warshofsky, “Ethnonationalism and Political Stability: The Soviet Case,” World Politics 36, no. 4 (July 1984): 355–80Google Scholar; G. Roeder, Philip, “Soviet Federalism and Ethnic Mobilization,” World Politics 23, no. 2 (January 1991): 196–233 Google Scholar; Teresa Rakowska-Harmstone, “The Dialectics of Nationalism in the USSR,” Problems of Communism XXIII (May-June 1974), 1–22 Google Scholar; and Zaslavsky, Victor, “Nationalism and Democratic Transition in Postcommunist Societies,” Daedalus 121, no. 2 (Spring 1992): 97–121 Google Scholar. On the promotion of “national languages” and bilingualism, see the work of Anderson, Barbara A. and Silver, Brian D., especially “Equality, Efficiency, and Politics in Soviet Bilingual Education Policy, 1934–1980,” American Political Science Review 78, no. 4 (October 1984): 1019–39Google Scholar; and “Some Factors in the Linguistic and Ethnic Russification of Soviet Nationalities: Is Everyone Becoming Russian?” in Hajda, Lubomyr and Beissinger, Mark, eds., The Nationalities Factor in Soviet Politics and Society (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990 Google Scholar. For a fascinating analysis of state-sponsored nationalism in a non-federal communist state, see Verdery, Katherine, National Ideology under Socialism: Identity and Cultural Politics in Ceaus, escu's Romania (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.