Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T20:28:01.723Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Polish Economists in Nehru's India: Making Science for the Third World in an Era of De-Stalinization and Decolonization

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 October 2018

Małgorzata Mazurek
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Between 1956–68 economic expertise became Poland's key export product in the decolonizing world. India, a broker of social science in the Cold War, became a geopolitical gateway for Polish economists’ spread of developmental thinking that revived heterodox Marxism and peasant studies. In this article, Małgorzata Mazurek investigates epistemic and intellectual effects of Polish – Indian encounters and how they evolved separately from Soviet Third World politics. Mazurek argues that during de-Stalinization and decolonization, failures and obstacles to planning and land reforms came to be seen as a common ground between eastern Europe and South Asia. This shared perception also revived the historical legacy of central and east European social science, which was internationalized in new ways both because, and in spite, of the Cold War.

Type
Beyond the Iron Curtain: Eastern Europe and the Global Cold War
Information
Slavic Review , Volume 77 , Issue 3 , Fall 2018 , pp. 588 - 610
Copyright
Copyright © Association for Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

I would like to thank Theodora Dragostinova and Małgorzata Fidelis, the organizers of this cluster and of the conference at the Ohio State University “Iron Curtain Crossings: Eastern Europe and the Global Cold War.” I also want to thank the organizers and participants of the Columbia University workshop “Global Circuits of Expertise and the Making of the Post-1945 World: Eastern European and Asian Perspectives,’” where I discussed the preliminary version of this article; my colleagues Deborah Coen, Kavita Sivaramakrishnan, and Maria Bucur for their helpful feedback and suggestions; anonymous reviewers; and finally Ignacy Sachs, who first told me about Polish economists in India.

References

1. Widzaj Soni, “Oskar Lange i planowanie w Indiach,” Polityka, no. 48; Lange, Oskar, Dzieła, vol. 8, (Warsaw, 1986), 555–56Google Scholar; Tumulec, Maciej, Historia stosunków polsko-indyjskich XVI-XXI w. (Warsaw 2013), 66Google Scholar.

2. On Indian economic policy and planning in a national context, see Tomlinson, B. R., “The Economy of Modern India: From 1860 to the Twenty-First Century,” in The New Cambridge History of India, 2nd Ed. (Cambridge, Mass., 2013)Google Scholar. On the role of international actors in India’s developmental policy, see Engerman, David C., The Price of Aid: The Economic Cold War in India (Cambridge, Mass., 2018)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Unger, Corinna R., Entwicklungspfade in Indien: eine internationale Geschichte 1947–1980 (Göttingen, 2015)Google Scholar.

3. Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs Archive (Archiwum Ministerstwa Spraw Zagranicznych, herafter AMSZ), 12/9/218 (Notatki z pobytu w Indiach rektora Szkoły Głównej Planowania i Statystyki, Oskara Lange, 26.01–15.04.1955, Notatka no. 4, March 30, 1956, npag); AMSZ, 12/9/218 (Notatki z pobytu w Indiach rektora Szkoły Głównej Planowania i Statystyki, Oskara Lange, 26.01–15.04.1955, Notatka no. 5, May 2, 1956, npag).

4. Engerman, David C., “Learning from the East: Soviet Experts and India in the Era of Competitive Coexistence,” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 33, no. 2 (2013): 230CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5. Békés, Csaba, “East Central Europe, 1953–1956,” in Leffler, Melvyn and Westad, Odd Arne, eds., The Cambridge History of the Cold War Vol. 3: Endings (Cambridge, Mass., 2010), 343Google Scholar; Machcewicz, Paweł, Rebellious Satellite: Poland 1956, trans. Latynski, Maya (Washington D.C., 2009)Google Scholar. For a new comparative perspective, focusing on intellectual and social aspects of the early post-Stalinist era in Poland, Czechoslovakia, and East Germany, see Kolář, Pavel, Der Poststalinismus: Ideologie und Utopie einer Epoche (Cologne, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6. The Second Convention took place on June 7–9, 1956. For an excellent historical analysis of the conference and the politics of institututional changes in post-1945 Polish economics, see Aleksandra Witczak Haugstad, A Discipline Divided: Polish Economists and the Communist Regime, 1945–1960 (Ph.D. diss., Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 2008).

7. Latham, Michael E., “The Cold War in the Third World, 1963–1975,” in Leffler, Melvyn and Westad, Odd Arne, eds., The Cambridge History of the Cold War, Vol. 2: Crises and Detente (Cambridge, Mass., 2010), 258–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar; James Mark, Steffi Marung and Artemy M. Kalinovsky, eds., Alternative Globalizations: Eastern Europe and the Decolonizing World (Bloomington, forthcoming).

8. James, Leslie and Leake, Elisabeth, eds., Decolonization and the Cold War: Negotiating Independence (London, 2015)Google Scholar; McMahon, Robert J., “On the Periphery of a Global Conflict: India and the Cold War, 1947–1991,” in Hilger, Andreas and Unger, Corinna R., eds., India in the World Since 1947: National and Transnational Perspectives (Frankfurt am Main, 2012), 276–99Google Scholar.

9. Anderson, Jenny, “The Great Future Debate and the Struggle for the World,” American Historical Review 117, no. 5 (December 2012): 1411–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10. Hirschman, Albert O., “The Rise and Decline of Development Economics,” in The Essential Hirschman, ed. and introduction by Adelman, Jeremy (Princeton, 2013), 68Google Scholar.

11. For a comparable analysis of in the field of architecture, see Stanek, Łukasz, “Introduction: The ‘Second World’s’ Architecture and Planning in the ‘Third World’,” in “Cold War Transfer: Architecture and Planning from Socialist Countries in the ‘Third World’,” a special issue of The Journal of Architecture 17, no. 3 (June 2012): 299–307CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Stanek, , “Miastoprojekt Goes Abroad: The Transfer of Architectural Labour from Socialist Poland to Iraq (1958–1989),” The Journal of Architecture 22, no. 4 (June 2017): 786–811CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

12. On the shifting Soviet discourse about Latin America, Asia and Africa, see Pons, Silvo, The Global Revolution: A History of International Communism, 1917–1991, trans. Cameron, Allan (Oxford, 2014)Google Scholar.

13. Swain, Nigel, “Eastern European Collectivizations Campaigns Compared, 1945–1962,” in Iordachi, Constantin and Bauerkamper, Arnd, eds., The Collectivization of Agriculture in Communist Eastern Europe: Comparison and Entanglements (Budapest, 2014), 526–29Google Scholar; Zhihua, Shen and Danhui, Li, “The Polish Crisis of 1956 and Polish-Chinese Relations,” in Rowinski, Jan, Jaskułowski, Tytus, and Międzynarodowych, Polski Instytut Spraw, eds., The Polish October 1956 in World Politics (Warsaw, 2007), 75–114Google Scholar.

14. Engerman, “Learning from the East”; David C. Engerman, “The Political Power of Economic Ideas? Foreign Advisors and Indian Planning in the 1950s and 1960s,” in Hilger and Unger, India in the World, 120–35.

15. Engerman, David C., “Development Politics and the Cold War,” Diplomatic History 41, no. 1 (January 2017): 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

16. Sachs, Ignacy, “Learning Political Economy with Michał Kalecki,” Review of Political Economy 11, no. 3 (July 1999): 269–70CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

17. Berghahn, Volker R., America and the Intellectual Cold Wars in Europe (Princeton, 2001)Google Scholar; Czernecki, Igor, “An Intellectual Offensive: The Ford Foundation and the Destalinization of the Polish Social Sciences,” Cold War History 13, no. 3 (August 2013): 289–310CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sułek, Antoni, “‘To America!’ Polish Sociologists in the United States after 1956 and the Development of Empirical Sociology in Poland,” East European Politics and Societies: and Cultures 24, no. 3 (March 2010): 327–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Berg, Maxine, “East-West Dialogues: Economic Historians, the Cold War, and Detente,” The Journal of Modern History 87, no. 1 (March 2015): 36–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

18. Hodge, Joseph, “Writing the History of Development (Part 2: Longer, Deeper, Wider),” Humanity: An International Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development 7, no. 1 (Spring 2016): 125–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

19. Engerman, The Price of Aid; Unger, Entwicklungspfade in Indien; Cullather, Nick, The Hungry World: America’s Cold War Battle Against Poverty in Asia (Cambridge, Mass., 2010)Google Scholar, in particular chapter 3.

20. United Nations Statistical Commission: Sixty Years of Leadership and Professionalism in Building the Global Statistical System, 1947–2007 (New York, 2007), 3Google Scholar.

21. Westad, Odd Arne, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times (Cambridge, 2005), 280CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

22. Westad, The Global Cold War, 281 and 423–33; McMahon, “On the Periphery of a Global Conflict,” 285.

23. Lange, Oskar, Essays on Economic Planning, with foreword by Mahalanobis, P.C. (Calcutta, 1958)Google Scholar; “Some Observations on Input-Output Analysis,” Sankhya: The Indian Journal of Statistics 17, no. 4 (1957): 305–36Google Scholar; “Marxism and Bourgeois Economics,” Enquiry 1 (Delhi, 1959; Bombay, 1963)Google Scholar; “The Political Economy of Socialism,” Economic Weekly 15 (1958): 509–14Google Scholar; “The Role of Planning in Socialist Economy,” The Indian Economic Review 4, no. 2 (August 1958): 1–15Google Scholar; Patnaik, Prabhat, “Delhi School Days,” in Kumar, Dharma and Mookherjee, Dilip, eds., D. School: Reflections on the Delhi School of Economics (Delhi, 1995), 119Google Scholar.

24. Lange, Oskar, “Problem krajów gospodarczo słabo rozwiniętych,” in Dzieła: Kapitalizm, vol. 1, (Warsaw, 1973, [originally published in 1960]), 765–87Google Scholar.

25. On the ideological premises of Soviet expansion in the Third World in the early and mid 1950s, see: Pons, The Global Revolution, 231–33; Westad, The Global Cold War, 104.

26. AMSZ, 12/9/218 (Notatki z pobytu w Indiach rektora Szkoły Głównej Planowania i Statystyki, Oskara Lange, npag).

27. Engerman, “Learning from the East,” 40.

28. AMSZ, 12/9/218 (Notatki z pobytu w Indiach rektora SGPiS, Oskara Lange, 1956, Notatka no. 2, 27.I.1956, npag).

29. Daniel, and Thorner, Alice, “Ploughing the Plan Under,” in Land and Labour in India (Bombay, 1962), 113Google Scholar. The remark concerns the Report on India’s Food Crisis and Steps to Meet It by the Agricultural Production Team sponsored by the Ford Foundation (Delhi, 1959).

30. Polish Academy of Sciences Archive (Archiwum Polskiej Akademii Nauk, hereafter APAN), Oskar Lange collection, 130 (Niektóre zagadnienia współczesnych Indii. Odpowiedzi tow. Prof. Lange na pytania prelegentów, Centralny Ośrodek Szkolenia Partyjnego PPZR, July 1955, npag). For the overall account of Lange’s trips to India see: Oskar Lange, Dzieła, vol. 3, 541–56.

31. For Marxist and structuralist descriptions of Poland in the world context, see Landau, Ludwik, Gospodarka światowa: Produkcja i dochod spoleczny w liczbach (Warsaw, 1939)Google Scholar. For other interwar east central European examples of Marxist and structuralist interpretations of “backward economies,” see Małgorzata Mazurek, “Measuring Development: An Intellectual History of Ludwik Landau’s Scale of World Inequality,” Contemporary European History (forthcoming in Fall 2018); Love, Joseph, Crafting the Third World: Theorizing Underdevelopment in Rumania and Brazil (Stanford, 1996)Google Scholar.

32. Lange, “Problem krajów gospodarczo słabo rozwiniętych,” in: Dzieła: Kapitalizm, vol. 1, 765–87, here 767.

33. Hilger, Andreas, “Building a Socialist Elite? Khrushchev’s Soviet Union and Elite Formation in India,” in Dülffer, Jost and Frey, Marc, eds., Elites and Decolonization in the Twentieth Century (Basingstoke, 2011), 262–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On the declared superiority of the Soviet economic model in the context of Cold War development, see Iandolo, Alessandro, “The Rise and Fall of the ‘Soviet Model of Development’ in West Africa, 1957–64,” Cold War History 12, no. 4 (December 2012): 683–704CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

34. Latham, “The Cold War in the Third World,” 259.

35. Pons, The Global Revolution, 233, 54; Riddell, John, ed., To See the Dawn: Baku, 1920: First Congress of the Peoples of the East (New York, 1993)Google Scholar.

36. Oskar Lange, “Dlaczego kapitalizm nie potrafi rozwiązać problemu krajów gospodarczo zacofanych” (na podstawie stenogramu wykładu na kursie Wydziału Propagandy i Agitacji KC PZPR), in Dzieła, vol. 1, [originally published in 1957], 732–33.

37. Ibid.,734.

38. Lange, Oskar, “Uwagi o drugim planie pięcioletnim Indii,” in Pisma ekonomiczne i społeczne, 1930–1860 (Warsaw, 1961), 429–35Google Scholar.

39. Engerman, “The Political Power of Economic Ideas?,” 124.

40. AMSZ, 12/9/218 (Notatki z pobytu w Indiach rektora SGPiS, Oskara Lange, 1956, Notatka nr. 1, 1.II.1955, npag).

41. Unger, Entwicklungspfade in Indien, chapter 2; Cullather, The Hungry World.

42. Engerman, “Learning from the East,” 231.

43. AMSZ, 12/9/218 (Notatki z pobytu w Indiach rektora SGPiS, Oskara Lange, 1956, Notatka no. 1, 1.II.1955, npag).

44. Oskar Lange, Dzieła: Działalność naukowa i społeczna, vol. 8, 538. For more on Polish-Indian diplomatic relations, see Mathur, Nameeta, “East meets East: Foreign Relations between India and Poland during the Cold War,” South Asian History and Culture 5, no. 3 (2014): 314–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Maciej Tumulec, Historia stosunków polsko-indyjskich XVI-XXI w., 55–111; Góralski, Władysław, ed., Stosunki polsko-indyjskie po drugiej wojnie światowej (chronologia i bibliografia) (Warsaw, 1985)Google Scholar.

45. Włodzimierz Borodziej, “1956 as a Turning Point in Poland’s Foreign Policy,” in The Polish October 1956, 328–29.

46. Békés, East Central Europe 1953–1956, 347.

47. Borodziej, 331.

48. Ibid., 333.

49. Winiewicz, Józef, Co pamiętam z długiej drogi życia (Poznań, 1985), 619Google Scholar.

50. Shen and Li, The Polish Crisis, 111–12.

51. Hilger, “Building a Socialist Elite?,” 273.

52. AMSZ, 12/27/661 (Notatka Departamentu V z dnia 29.X.1956, npag); AMSZ, 12/46/1137 (Wytyczne do wystąpień publicznych Premiera PRL w czasie wizyt w krajach Azji, npag).

53. APAN, Oskar Lange Collection, 130 (Mahalanobis to Lange, Nov. 5, 1957).

54. Archives Nationales de France, Collection EHESS, “Memoires de Charles Bettelheim,” unpublished. Many thanks to Bernard Chavance for sharing a copy of these memoirs with me.

55. Oskar Lange, Dzieła: Działalność naukowa i społeczna, vol. 8, 561.

56. Lange, Oskar, “Przemówienie na VII posiedzeniu KC PPZR, July 18–28 1956,” in Jabłonowski, Marek et al. , eds., Dokumenty centralnych władz PZPR, marzec-listopad 1956 (Warsaw, 2009), 671–72Google Scholar. On the long-term impact of Khrushchev’s Secret Speech and de-Stalinization in Poland, see Kolář, Der Poststalinismus.

57. Oskar Lange’s speech at the 7th Plenum of the Central Committee of the PUWP, July 18–28, 1956, in Dokumenty centralnych władz PZPR, marzec-listopad 1956, 175.

58. For an economic history of the post-Stalinist period, see Landau, Zbigniew and Tomaszewski, Jerzy, The Polish Economy in the Twentieth Century, trans. Roszkowski, Wojciech (London, 1985)Google Scholar; Brus, Włodzimierz and Łaski, Kazimierz, From Marx to Market: Socialism in Search of an Economic System (Oxford, 1989)Google Scholar.

59. Jerzy Tepicht’s speech at the 7th Plenum of the Central Committee of the PUWP, July 18–28, 1956, Dokumenty centralnych władz PZPR, marzec-listopad 1956, 250–51.

60. Władysław Gomułka, “Speech to the 8th Plenary Session,” Nowe Drogi, 10/1956, 34.

61. Szurek, Jean-Charles, “Family Farms in Polish Agricultural Policy: 1945–1985,” Eastern European Politics and Societies: and Cultures 1, no. 2 (1987): 225–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Szurek, Jean-Charles, Aux origines paysannes de la crise polonaise (Paris, 1982)Google Scholar.

62. Yugoslavia had abandoned collectivization by 1953, but it had not been part of the Soviet bloc since 1948; see Swain, “Eastern European Collectivizations Campaigns Compared, 1945–1962.”

63. AMSZ, 12/35/843 (Indie. Notatki polityczne.1960, Katz-Suchy to Adam Rapacki, Polish Foreign Minister, 16.VIII.1960: 122).

64. Stenogram narady centralnego aktywu partyjnego PZPR w dniach 3–4 marca 1956, in Dokumenty centralnych władz PZPR, 88.

65. AMSZ, 12/10/237 (Raporty polityczne ambasady PRL w New Delhi [za I półrocze 1958], npag); AMSZ, 12/10/226 (Raport ambasady PRL w New Delhi [za drugie półrocze 1957 r.], npag).

66. Ignacy Sachs, “My Education in Delhi” in D. School: Reflections on the Delhi School of Economics, 70.

67. AMSZ, 12/10/241 (Notatka Katza-Suchego do Kolegium MSZ, December 16, 1958, npag).

68. United Nations Intellectual History Project (UNIHP), Interview with Ignacy Sachs by Frederic Lapeyre [in French], Paris, May 9, 2000, transcript available at the Columbia University Library Special Collections.

69. Bandung: Konferencja Krajów Azji i Afryki (18–24 kwietnia 1955 r.). Dokumenty i materiały (Warsaw, 1955)Google Scholar; Sachs, Ignacy, Trzeci brzeg: w poszukiwaniu eko rozwoju (Warsaw, 2011, see also Portuguese and French editions)Google Scholar.

70. Sachs, Trzeci brzeg, 117.

71. Sachs, Ignacy, La Decouverte du Tiers Monde (Paris, 1971)Google Scholar. See also the English edition: The Discovery of the Third World, trans. Fineberg, Michael (Cambridge, Mass., 1976)Google Scholar; Kalter, Christoph, The Discovery of the Third World: Decolonization and the Rise of the New Left in France, c. 1950–1976 (Cambridge, 2016), 1–2CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

72. AMSZ, 12/10/232 (Notatki z rozmów przeprowadzanych w Warszawie, Delhi i Bombaju, different dates from 1958).

73. AMSZ 12/10/212 (Notatka z rozmowy z prof. K.N. Raj’em z Delhi School of Economics w dniu 3 listopada 1958 r. nt. trzeciego plany 5-letniego, npag).

74. Amit Badhuri (autobiographical entry) in Philip Arestis and Malcolm Sawyer, eds., A Biographical Dictionary of Dissenting Economists (1992), at digamo.free.fr/as2001.pdf (last accessed, July 1, 2018).

75. On the distinction about “monoeconomics” and “development economics,” see Hirschman, “The Rise and Decline of Development Economics,” in The Essential Hirschman, 49–73.

76. Amartya Sen, “On the Delhi School,” in D. School, 86–102, here 94. See also his contribution published in Poland: Sen, Amartya, “The Efficiency of Indirect Taxes,” in Problems of Economic Dynamics and Planning: Essays in Honour of M. Kalecki (Warsaw, 1964), 365–72Google Scholar.

77. M.N. Srivinas, “Sociology in Delhi,” in D. School, 31–50, here 44.

78. Sachs, “My Education in Delhi,” in D. School, 69.

79. United Nations Intellectual History Project (UNIHP), Columbia University Special Collections, Interview with Ignacy Sachs, 11; Sachs, Ignacy, “Du Moyen Age a nos jours: Européo-centrisme et découverte du Tiers Monde,” Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales 21, no. 3 (May–June 1966): 465–87, especially 484CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

80. Ignacy Sachs, Sektor państwowy a rozwój gospodarczy (PhD diss., accepted by University of Delhi in 1960 in Polish translation (Warsaw, 1961); “My Education in Delhi,” in D. School, 69.

81. Sachs, Trzeci brzeg, 126.

82. Bagchi, Amiya Kumar, “Daniel Thorner’s India,” Economic and Political Weekly 16, no. 13 (March 28, 1981), 572–73, 575–78Google Scholar; Sachs, Ignacy, “Daniel Thorner” (obituary), Economic Development and Cultural Change 24, no. 1 (October 1975): 260CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

83. Sachs, “Daniel Thorner,” 260.

84. Sachs, “Du Moyen Age,” 486–87.

85. Thorner, Daniel, The Shaping of Modern India (New Delhi, 1980), x–xvGoogle Scholar; Mann, Harold and Kanitkar, N.V., Land and Labour: Deccan Village, vols. 1 and 2 (London, 1917 [Vol. 1], 1921 [Vol. 2])Google Scholar. On the German education of Indian intellectuals, see Manjapra, Kris, Age of Entanglement: German and Indian Intellectuals across Empire (Cambridge, Mass., 2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also the original studies informing Harold Mann’s village studies: Rowntree, Benjamin Seebohm, Land and Labour: Lessons from Belgium (London, 1910)Google Scholar.

86. Thorner preferred to talk about zamindars, coolies, or specific castes living in rural India, as he found the notion of “peasantry” too Eurocentric. Thorner, Daniel, The Agrarian Prospect in India: Five Lectures on Land Reform Delivered in 1955 at the Delhi School of Economics (Bombay, 1976), 645Google Scholar onward.

87. Thorner, The Agrarian Prospect in India, 7–9.

88. Unger, Entwicklungsphade in Indien; B. R. Tomlinson, The Economy of Modern India, in particular 138–68.

89. On twentieth-century iterations of Methodenstreit, see Chasse, Daniel Speich, Die Erfindung des Bruttosozialprodukts: globale Ungleichheit in der Wissensgeschichte der Ökonomie (Göttingen, 2013)Google Scholar.

90. Kula, Witold, “Przedmowa,” in Thorner, Alice, Thorner, Daniel and Falewicz, Jan, eds., Ziemia i praca w Indii (Warsaw, 1966), 9Google Scholar.

91. Daniel Thorner, “Survey of the States,” in The Agrarian Prospect in India, 4.

92. Ibid., 31–51.

93. Thorner, Daniel, “Chayanov’s concept of ‘Peasant Economy’,” in Thorner, Daniel, Kerblay, Basile and Smith, R.E.F., eds., A.V. Chayanov on the Theory of Peasant Economy (Homewood, 1966), ixGoogle Scholar.

94. Witczak Haugstad, A Discipline Divided, 262.

95. On the fate of the so-called “model debate,” in which Lange and Kalecki played fundamental roles and which aimed to introduce market mechanisms to the centrally planned economy in post-Stalinist Poland, see Chavance, Bernard, The Transformation of Communist Systems: Economic Reform Since the 1950s, trans. Hauss, Charles (Boulder, 1993), 37–40Google Scholar; Brus, Włodzimierz, “1953 to 1956: The ‘Thaw’ and the ‘New Course’,” and “1957–1963: In Search of Balanced Development” in Kaser, M.C., ed., The Economic History of Eastern Europe 1919–1975, vol. 3 (Oxford, 1986), especially 53–54 and 71–75Google Scholar; Kovács, J.M. & Tardos, M. eds., Reform and Transformation in Eastern Europe: Soviet-type Economics on the Threshold of Change (London, 1992)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

96. Kalecki, Michał, “Financial Problems of the Third Plan: Some Observations,” The Economic & Political Weekly 12, no. 28 (July 9, 1960): 1119–23Google Scholar. I rely on the Polish version of the document: Kalecki, Michał, “Uwagi o problemach finansowych trzeciego planu pięcioletniego w Indiach,” in Dzieła, vol. 5 (Warsaw, 1985), 152–60Google Scholar.

97. On Kalecki’s impact on international and Indian economics, see Ghosh, Jayati, “Michał Kalecki,” in Reinert, Erik S., Ghosh, Jayati, and Kattel, Rainer, eds., Handbook of Alternative Theories of Economic Development (Cheltenham, 2016), 475–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

98. Osiatyński, Jerzy, ed. Collected Works of Michał Kalecki, vols. 1 and 7, trans. Kisiel, Adam (Oxford, 1997)Google Scholar; López G, Julio and Assous, Michaël, Michal Kalecki (Houndmills, 2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Toye, John, “Michał Kalecki, the World Economic Report, and McCarthyism,” in Toye, John and Toye, Richard, eds., The UN and Global Political Economy: Trade, Finance, and Development (Bloomington, 2004), 63–87Google Scholar; Toporowski, Jan, “Shared Ideas Amid Mutual Incomprehension: Kalecki and Cambridge,” in Arestis, P., ed., Microeconomics, Macroeconomics and Economic Policy: Essays in Honour of Malcolm Sawyer (Houndmills, 2011), 170–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

99. Włodzimierz Brus, “Years 1957–1963: In Search of Balanced Development,” in The Economic History of Eastern Europe 1919–1975, vol. 3, 71–138, here 97.

100. Sen, Amartya, “The Efficiency of Indirect Taxes,” in Problems of Economic Dynamics and Planning: Essays in Honour of M. Kalecki (Warsaw, 1964), 365–72Google Scholar.

101. Kalecki, Michał, “Unemployment in Underdeveloped Countries,” The Indian Journal of Labour Economics 3, no. 2 (1960): 59–61Google Scholar; Kalecki, “Uwagi o problemach finansowych,” 160.

102. Ibid., 160.

103. Public Records Office, Foreign Office, series 371, dossier 143 203, the British ambassador on leading personalities in Poland (July 24, 1959).

104. Sachs, “My Education in Delhi,” in D. School, 70.

105. Rudra, Ashok, Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis: A Biography (Delhi, 1996), 315Google Scholar.

106. Kalecki, Michał, “Observations on Social and Economic Aspects of ‘Intermediate Regimes’,” Coexistence: A Review of East-West and Development Issues 4, no. 1 (1967): 1–5Google Scholar; for the edited version of the Polish original, see, Kalecki, “Uwagi o społeczno-gospodarczych aspektach ‘ustrojów pośrednich’,” in Dzieła, vol. 5, 22–29, here 24.

107. Kalecki, Michał, “Intermediate Regimes” (1966), in his The Last Phase in the Transformation of Capitalism (New York, 1972): 121–22Google Scholar.

108. Jerzy Osiatyński, “Przypisy i dodatki,” in Dzieła, vol. 5, 315.

109. Kalecki, Michał and Landau, Ludwik, Szacunek dochodu społecznego w r. 1929 (Warsaw, 1934)Google Scholar; Kalecki, Michał and Landau, Ludwik, Dochód społeczny w r. 1933 i podstawy badań periodycznych nad zmianami dochodu (Warsaw, 1935)Google Scholar.

110. Engerman, David C., “Social Science in the Cold War,” Isis 101, no. 2 (June 2010): 393–400CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

111. Braudel, Fernand, “Daniel Thorner,” in Hobsbawm, E.J., ed., Peasants in History: Essays in Honour of Daniel Thorner (Calcutta, 1980), xiiGoogle Scholar. This Polish-French-Indian circuit of knowledge also inspired Witold Kula’s famous An Economic Theory of the Feudal System: Towards a Model of the Polish Economy (London, 1976)Google Scholar, an attempt to explain the durability of, and rationale behind, serfdom.

112. Kula, Marcin, “Between Memory and Historical Enquiry: Kalecki and the Warsaw Centre of Research on Underdeveloped Economies 1962–1968,” in Bellofiore, Riccardo, Karwowski, Ewa, and Toporowski, Jan, eds., The Legacy of Rosa Luxemburg, Oskar Lange, and Michal Kalecki (Basingstoke, 2014), 165–78Google Scholar.

113. Ignacy Sachs, Trzeci brzeg, 130–31; Africa Institute Archives in Moscow (1966), npag. Solodovnikov’s report on scholarly connections between the Soviet Union and adjacent socialist countries. Many thanks to Natalia Telepneva for sharing this document.

114. Kula, Witold, “Pourquoi l’histoire européenne serait-elle universelle?” in his Rozdziałki, entry from Dec. 10, 1964 (Warsaw, 1996), 176–77Google Scholar.

115. Ibid., 33.