1. “Economic work” refers to the supervision and direction of production while “party-political work” refers to the recruitment, placement, and education of personnel, the development of effective party organization, improved intraparty communication, and monitoring performance of other party members. Some leaders used the term “internal party work” to refer to these activities.

2. These Secretariat departments were established in January 1930. See Istoriia KPSS, vol. 4, book 2 (Moscow, 1971), p. 34. Stalin praised the new departments in his address to the Sixteenth Congress. See Stalin, J., Works, vol. 12 (Moscow, 1952-55), pp. 336–38Google Scholar. For Stalin's endorsement of the Sovnarkom's industrial role, see Stalin, Works, vol. 13, pp. 34-52. In December 1930, V. Molotov, V. Kuibyshev, and S. Ordzhonikidze were given major Sovnarkom responsibilities. See Politicheskii slovar1 (Moscow, 1940), pp. 298, 352, 395.

3. Stalin, Works, vol. 13, pp. 374-75.

4. Stalin, I., Sochineniia, ed. McNeal, Robert H., vol. 1 (14) (Stanford, 1967), p. 211–20.Google Scholar

5. For Stalin's discussion of the Soviet state see XVIII s “ezd VKP(b): Stenografichcskii otchct (Moscow, 1939), p. 35. For comments by the Politburo commissars see pp. 144-45, 212, 268, 397, 500.

6. Ibid., pp. 30-31.

7. Ibid., p. 533. At this juncture the term kontroV referred to the “verification of fulfillment” of existing decrees. See Politicheskii slovar” , p. 277. However, the meaning of the term immediately became a matter of intense dispute within the Soviet leadership.

8. Zhdanov declared that edinonachalie embraced “the capacity to direct, to organize affairs, select cadres, issue appropriate orders, demand reports on completed work, eliminate irresponsibility and divided responsibility.” Ibid., p. 535.

9. Ibid., p. 533.

10. Ibid., pp. 146-50.

11. KPSS v rezoliutsiiakh i reshcniiakh s “ezdov, konferentsii i plenumov TsK VKP(b), 8th ed., vol. 5, pp. 381-82, 395.

12. In January 1936, Zhdanov was implicitly recognized as Stalin's leading expert on party history. At that time all CC journals published a critique of history texts, which Zhdanov had written with Kirov and Stalin in 1934, and a resolution naming Zhdanov the head of a commission to study Soviet history texts. See Bol'shevik, 1936, no. 3, for these materials. In March 1936 Malenkov replaced Ezhov as the editor of the CC journal Partiinoe stroitel'stvo (see nos. S and 6 of 1936). (Partiinoe stroitel'stvo hereafter cited as PS.) This may have indicated that Malenkov replaced Ezhov as the director of the secret cadres department of the Secretariat. See Schapiro, Leonard, The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (New York, 1971), p. 1971 Google Scholar. A comparison of PS and Bol'shevik in the late 1930s reveals no apparent difference in Zhdanov's and Malenkov's discussions of Secretariat work before 1939.

13. It is impossible to determine whether Malenkov was assigned the task of supervising industry or took it upon himself. Whatever the case, the journal he edited began to call for increased Secretariat “direction” of the economy soon after the Eighteenth Congress. “Vpered k kommunizmu, ” PS, 1939, no. 9, p. 9. Although Schapiro concludes that Malenkov became involved in industrial supervision “after 1939” (Schapiro, Communist Party, p. 447), there is some evidence of his personal involvement in industrial supervision in 1939. See Pravda, February 18, 1941. For a detailed discussion of the cadre directorate's structure see PS, 1939, no. 13.

14. The agitprop directorate's structure and responsibilities had already been outlined in a CC resolution of November 1938 on the correct use of the Kratkii kurs. See KPSS v resoliutsiiakh … , 7th ed., vol. 3, pp. 316-25.

15. Partiinoe stroitel'stvo (PS) was edited by the leaders of the cadres directorate until its demise in 1946. Malenkov was editor in chief from March 1936 until late 1940. Although Zhdanov was not listed as a member of Bol'shevik's editorial board, at least two of his deputies were on the board from 1939 onward. Zhdanov's successor as director of the directorate, G. F. Aleksandrov, served on the board from 1939 until the late 1940s.

16. See Politicheskii slovar1, p. 429. The secretaries of the CC included Stalin, Andreev, and Zhdanov. The Politburo commissars included Voroshilov, Kaganovich, Mikoyan, and Molotov. Kuusinen and Khrushchev did not fall into either category.

17. Cf. “Velichestvennaia programma bor'by za kommunizm, ” Bol'shevik, 1939, no. 8, p. 5, approved for publication April 29, 1939, with “Vpered k kommunizmu, ” PS, 1939, no. 9, p. 9, approved for publication April 27, 1939.

18. Pravda, March 30, 1939; April 3, 1939; April 11, 1939; April 22, 1939. In light of this support for Zhdanov, the cadre directorate journal published an article by his deputy, G. F. Aleksandrov, extolling the virtues of Marxism-Leninism. G. F. Aleksandrov, “Bol'sheviki obiazany znat’ zakony razvitiia obshchestva, ” PS, 1939, no. 9, approved for publication April 27, 1939.

19. There is some indication of a brief period of leadership support for Malenkov's orientation in early May 1939. On the one hand Malenkov seemed to enjoy a favored position at the May Day parade of 1939 (Pravda, May 1, 1939), and a CC resolution published that month seemed to embody his views on Secretariat industrial responsibility. (See an undated and shortened version in PS, 1939, no. 10, p. 62.) On the other hand, Pravda did not endorse his position editorially, and resumed its support for Zhdanov's views in mid-May. See Pravda, May 17, 1939; May 18, 1939; May 19, 1939; May 21, 1939. Moreover, there is some indirect evidence that Malenkov lost influence at the CC meeting later that month. Pravda, May 26, 1939; June 1, 1939.

20. Pravda, June 3, 1939; June 6, 1939; June 7, 1939; June IS, 1939; July 20, 1939; July 21, 1939.

21. Malenkov did not appear with other officials to mark Physical Culture Day. Pravda, July 19, 1939. Zhdanov received front page coverage on the following day. Pravda, July 20, 1939. Malenkov reappeared in public with other officials at the Supreme Soviet meeting which ratified the Nazi-Soviet pact. Pravda, August 29, 1939; September 1, 1939.

22. “Bol'she organizovannosti v propagandistskoi rabote, ” Bol'shevik, 1939, no. 11/12, approved for publication August 7, 1939.

23. PS, 1939, no. 15, p. 62. For Bol'shevik's commentary on the resolution see “Protiv samoteka v propagande marksizma-leninizma, ” Bol'shevik, 1939, no. 15/16, pp. 53-57, approved for publication September 11, 1939. For a vigorous defense of theoretical education based on the Kratkii kurs see “Moguchee oruzhie bol'shevizma, ” Bol'shevik, 1939, no. 17, approved for publication September 28, 1939.

24. For a grudging acknowledgment of the importance of Marxism-Leninism see “Marksistskaia leninskaia teoriia—velichaishchaia organizuiushchaia sila, ” PS, 1939, no. 17/18, pp. 8-9, approved for publication October 5, 1939. For an example of the shift in PS's orientation see Patolichev, N, “O sochetanii partiino-politicheskoi i khoziaistvennoi raboty,” PS, 1939, no. 14, pp. 33–36Google Scholar, approved for publication August 5, 1939.

25. Dallin, Cf. David, Soviet Russia's Foreign Policy: 1939-1942 (New Haven, 1942), pp. 66–67 Google Scholar, with Ulam, Adam, Stalin (New York, 1973), p. 510–13.Google Scholar

26. Pravda, October 17, 1939.

27. KPSS v resoliutsiiakh … , 8th ed., vol. 5, pp. 419-22.

28. “Za usilenie partiinogo rukovodstva promyshlennosti, ” PS, 1939, no. 19, approved for publication October 20, 1939, the same day as the CC resolution.

29. Both secretaries appeared in public together in early November but were not named. Pravda, November 1, 1939; November 4, 1939. Malenkov seemed to appear in the center of the group of officials attending the anniversary celebrations at Red Square. Pravda, November 9, 1939. He was shown walking with Stalin and others to Red Square in Pravda, November 10, 1939.

30. Pravda, November 10, 1939.

31. Pravda, November 12, 1939.

32. KPSS v resoliutsiiakh. …, vol. 5, p. 423. This resolution was not published until 1971. However, Pravda's editorial of December 7, 1939 provided oblique references to the decree. Subsequent comment on the decrees of October and November assert that they were designed to improve defense production. See KPSS v resoliutsiiakli … , vol. S, pp. 419 and 423.

33. Jakobson, Max, The Diplomacy of the Winter War (Cambridge, 1971), p. 145 Google Scholar. Zhdanov appeared with Voroshilov and Kuusinen at the signing of a treaty between the USSR and Kuusinen's Communist-led “government.” Pravda, December 3, 1939.

34. Malenkov, G, “Stalin on Cadres,” Stalin (New York, 1940), p. 117–18.Google Scholar

35. A. Shcherbakov, “The VKP(b)—An Impregnable Fortress, ” Stalin, pp. 167-68; Pravda, January 22, 1940.

36. “Leninsko-stalinskii put’ k kommunizmu, ” Bol'shevik, 1940, no. 2, pp. 2-6, approved for publication January 19, 1940.

37. Pravda, February 11, 1940; February 13, 1940; February 24, 1940; March 2, 1940. These editorials appeared as Soviet troops overcame Finnish resistance. See Jakobson, Diplomacy of the Winter War, p. 225.

38. The March CC meeting approved the handling of the war. Two days later Zhdanov reported to the Supreme Soviet on the new territories incorporated into the USSR. Pravda, March 30, 1940; April 1, 1940.

39. Towster, Julian, Political Power in the USSR: 1917-1947 (New York, 1948), pp. 282–83 Google Scholar. For Pravda's comment on the reform see Pravda, April 18, 1940.

40. Pravda, April 16, 1940.

41. N. Volodin, “Rol1 partorganizatsii v likvidatsii nedostatkov na proizvodstve,” PS, 1940, no. 7, approved for publication April 14, 1940; Pravda, May 30, 1940.

42. Dallin, Soviet Russia's Foreign Policy, pp. 231-33.

43. Meisal, James and Kozera, Edward, Materials for the Study of the Soviet System (Ann Arbor, 1953), pp. 356–63 Google Scholar. Pravda, September 7, 1940.

44. KPSS v rezoliutsiiakh … , vol. 5, p. 432. For Pravda's campaign on the subject see Pravda, August 5, 1940; August 11, 1940; August 15, 1940.

45. Leontev, A, “Za bol'shevistskii stil’ khoziaistvennogo rukovodstva,” PS, 1940, no. 9 Google Scholar; Burmistenko, M, “Partiinaia rabota—osnova nashikh pobed,” PS, 1940, no. 10 Google Scholar. For changes in the definition of pravo kontrolia, cf. A. Tsegolov, “V tsentr vnimaniia— voprosy ekonomiki, ” PS, 1940, no. 11/12, approved for publication July 4, 1940, with F. Limno and B. Fridland, “Vyshe uroven’ khoziaistvennogo rukovodstva, ” PS, 1940, no. 13, approved for publication July 29, 1940. After Pravda's extensive campaign in support of edinonachalic in August, PS belatedly followed suit. See Kapustin, I, “Vsemerno ukrepliat' edinonachalie,” PS, 1940, no. 15/16 Google Scholar; “Gosudarstvennaia i partiinaia distsiplina, ” PS, 1940, no. 17, approved for publication October 1, 1940; “Edinonachalie i pravo kontrolia,” PS, 1940, no. 18, approved for publication October 21, 1940.

46. In the period between the March CC meeting and the June 26, 1940 decree on labor mobility, Bol'shevik shifted back to its usual position on political education. “Velikii prodolzhatel’ dela Marksa Engelsa, ” Bol'shevik, 1940, no. 7, approved for publication April 20, 1940; “Bol'shevistskuiu propagandu—na vysshuiu stupen1, ” Bol'shevik, 1940, no. 10, approved for publication June 9, 1940. After the decree, it gave far greater stress to the need for labor discipline in order to “strengthen the state.” “Strana sotsializma dol'zhna stat’ vo mnogo raz sil'nee i moguchestvennee, ” Bol'shevik, 1940, no. 11/12, approved for publication July 9, 1940.

47. Dallin, Soviet Russia's Foreign Policy, pp. 233-34.

48. For an authoritative account of Zhdanov's activities in Estonia based on émigré testimony see U.S., Congress, House, Select Committee on Communist Aggression, Report of the Select Committee to investigate Communist aggression and the forced incorporation of the Baltic states into the USSR, 83rd Congress, 2nd Session, 1954 (Washington, D.C., 1954), pp. 245-52. Zhdanov stood between Stalin and Malenkov at the meeting of the Supreme Soviet which approved the absorption of the Baltic states into the USSR. See Pravda, August 2, 1940.

49. Dallin, Soviet Russia's Foreign Policy, pp. 261-67.

50. The personnel change was announced without editorial comment in Pravda, September 7, 1940. Although Pravda recognized that theoretical study was vital for the new citizens of the USSR (see editorial in Pravda, September 20, 1940), the proponents of a more “practical” orientation for agitprop were allowed to express their views at the time of the anniversary of the publication of the Kratkii kurs. M. Kalinin acted as the major spokesman for this group. See his address to the Moscow party organization on October 2, 1940 in Kalinin, M. I., O kommunistichcskom vospitanii i voinskom dolge (Moscow, 1967), pp. 426–44 Google Scholar. Moreover, Pravda's editorial on the Kratkii kurs insisted that agitprop work should not be “academic” but directly related to practical problems. Pravda, October 1, 1940.

51. The Politburo resolution is quoted in Istoriia kommunisticheskoi partii sovctskogo soiuza, vol. 5, part 1 (Moscow, 1970), p. 34. An oblique reference to this resolution appeared in Pravda's editorial of October 6, 1940.

52. Dallin, Soviet Russia's Foreign Policy, pp. 270-75.

53. G. Popov, “Partiinye organizatsii i tekhnologicheskaia distsiplina na proizvodstve,” PS, 1940, no. 19/20, pp. 34-38, approved for publication November 4, 1940.

54. Rozhkov, A, “Promyshlennyi otdel obkoma,” PS, 1940, no. 21, pp. 53–56Google Scholar, approved for publication November 20, 1940.

55. Pravda, December 8, 1940. The emphasis on leadership was in the original.

56. Pravda, December 20, 1940.

57. “Rasshiriat’ i uglubliat’ propagandu marksizma-leninizma, ” Bol'shevik, 1940, no. 21, pp. 7-13, approved for publication November 29, 1940.

58. Pravda, January 22, 1941. 59. “Pod znamenem leninizma, ” Bol'shcvik, 1941, no. 1, pp. 2-5, approved for publication January 30, 1941.

60. Malenkov, G. M., “O zadachakh partiinykh organizatsii v oblasti promyshlennosti i transporta,” Bol'shcvik, 1941, no. 3/4, p. 15.Google Scholar

61. Ibid., p. 30.

62. Voznesenskii, N. A., “Khoziaistvennyi itog 1940 i plan razvitiia narodnogo khoziaistva SSSR,” Bol'shevik, 1941, no. 3/4.Google Scholar

63. Pravda, February 16, 1941.

64. Pravda, February 18, 1941.

65. KPSS v rezoliutsiiakh … , vol. 5, pp. 460-70.

66. Pravda, February 22, 1941.

67. Pravda, February 28, 1941; March 7, 1941; March 26, 1941; May 19, 1941; June 20, 1941.

68. Pravda, April 22, 1941.

69. Franz Schurmann uses this phrase to refer to a “systematic set of ideas with action consequences serving the purpose of creating and using organization.” Schurmann, Franz, Ideology and Organisation in Communist China (New York, 1968), p. 18.Google Scholar