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Ideological Complementarity or Competition? The Kremlin, the Church, and the Monarchist Idea in Today's Russia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 August 2020

Marlene Laruelle
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Abstract

In 2018, Russia's last tsar, Nicholas II, was the most popular of all Russian historical figures of the twentieth century; the fame of White officers such as Alexander Kolchak and Anton Denikin was also on the rise. Obviously, broad sympathy for the last Romanov does not imply support for a potential restoration of the monarchy, yet the past few years have seen the activation of several monarchist lobbies, especially around the Russian Orthodox Church and in some well-connected Kremlin circles that seek the ideological hardening of the Putin regime. In this article, I use the case study of the monarchist idea to explore how the Kremlin manages the production of a large and diversified set of ideologies. I explore how the relationship between state authorities, ideological entrepreneurs, and some societal actors such as the Church is articulated along a continuum of permanent complementarity and competition in the production of ideologies.

Keywords

RussiamemorymonarchismRomanovtsarismOrthodoxy
Type
Articles
Information
Slavic Review , Volume 79 , Issue 2 , Summer 2020 , pp. 345 - 364
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Association for Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies

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26 Ibid.

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36 See the Foundation’s website, http://www.ruscharity.ru/ (no longer available).

37 Elizaveta Ser΄gina and Petr Kozlov, “Interv΄iu – Konstantin Malofeev, osnovatel΄ ‘Marshal kapitala,’” Vedemosti, November 13, 2014, at https://www.vedomosti.ru/newspaper/articles/2014/11/13/v-sankcionnye-spiski-vklyuchali-posovokupnosti-zaslug? (accessed April 7, 2020).

38 “Interv΄iu—Konstantin Malofeev, osnovatel΄ ‘Marshal kapitala.’”

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41 Shaun Walker, “‘Russia’s Soul Is Monarchic’: Tsarist School Wants to Reverse 100 Years of History,” The Guardian, March 6, 2017, at https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/mar/06/russia-revolution-tsarist-school-moscow-nicholas-ii (accessed April 7, 2020).

42 See “Informatsiia o gimnazii,” Gimnaziia Sviatelia Vasiliia Velikogo, at http://www.vasiliada.ru/about/information/ (accessed January 18, 2019). See also Isabelle Mandraud, “Tsarskaia shkola v Rossii,” Le Monde, April 7, 2017, at https://inosmi.ru/social/20170407/239071082.html (accessed January 18, 2019).

43 Joshua Keating, “God’s Oligarch,” Slate, October 20, 2014, at http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/foreigners/2014/10/konstantin_malofeev_one_of_vladimir_putin_s_favorite_businessmen_wants_to.single.html (accessed April 7, 2020).

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47 Ibid.

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50 One of the most complete biographies of Poklonskaia is available at “Mirotochenie i muzhestvo,” Meduza, April 5, 2017, at https://meduza.io/feature/2017/04/05/mirotochenie-i-muzhestvo (accessed April 7, 2020).

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53 For more details see Nikolai Mitrokhin, Russkaia pravoslavnaia tserkov΄: Sovremennoe sostoianie i aktual΄nye problemy (Moscow, 2004), 174–232.

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56 Zoe Knox, “The Symphonic Ideal: The Moscow Patriarchate’s Post-Soviet Leadership,” Europe-Asia Studies 55, no. 4 (June 2003): 575–96.

57 See more in Suslov, “The Genealogy of the Idea of Monarchy.”

58 Bulat Akhmetkarimov and Bruce Parrott, “The Surprising Future of the Religious Party in Russia,” SAIS Review of International Affairs 37, no. 1S (2017): S55–S70.

59 Charles Clover, “Kto takoi arkhimandrit Tikhon (Shevkunov),” Vedemosti, January 29, 2013, at https://www.vedomosti.ru/library/articles/2013/01/29/putin_i_arhimandrit (accessed April 9, 2020).

60 The film is available on YouTube at: “Gibel΄ Imperii: Vizantiiskii urok (2008),” YouTube video, 1:11:03, posted by “hramtroicy2,” May 26, 2013, at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0hs30505kX4 (no longer available). On the notion of “fortress” (katekhon), see Maria Engstrom, “Contemporary Russian Messianism and New Russian Foreign Policy,” Contemporary Security Policy 35, no. 3 (2014): 356–79.

61 See Tikhon’s interview by Vladimir Soloviev on “Vecher s Vladimirom Solovievym,” Telekanal “Rossiia,” July 9, 2017, at https://russia.tv/video/show/brand_id/21385/episode_id/1520739/video_id/1649929/viewtype/picture/ (accessed April 9, 2020).

62 At the turn of the twenty-first century, a movement opposing electronic barcodes—in which it saw the presence of the Antichrist in the world—became so powerful within the Church that it began to threaten the unity of the institution. See Nikolai Mitrokhin, “Infrastruktura podderzhki pravoslavnoi eskhatologii v sovremennoi RPC. Istoriia i sovremennost,’” in Russkii natsionalizm v politicheskom prostranstve, ed. Marlene Laruelle (Moscow, 2007), 196–250.

63 Anastasia Mitrofanova, “Russian Ethnic Nationalism and Religion Today,” in The New Russian Nationalism: Imperialism, Ethnicity and Authoritarianism, 2000–2015, ed. Pål Kolstø and Helge Blakkisrud (Edinburgh, 2017), 104–31.

64 See their website, https://myhistorypark.ru/ (accessed April 9, 2020).

65 A. Pushkarskaia and O. Goriaev, “Rossiiskuiu istoriiu izlozhat v 25 parkakh,” Kommersant, February 13, 2017, at https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/3218554 (accessed April 14, 2020).

66 See more in details Marlene Laruelle, “Commemorating 1917 in Russia: Ambivalent State History Policy and the Church’s Conquest of the History Market,” Europe-Asia Studies 71, no. 2 (March 2019): 249–67.

67 Based on the author’s visits to the exhibition in July 2016 and December 2017 and notes taken from documentary films, which are forbidden to record.

68 Wendy Slater, The Many Deaths of Tsar Nicholas II: Relics, Remains and the Romanovs (London, 2007); Robert K. Massie, The Romanovs: The Final Chapter (New York, 2012).

69 Aleksandr Morozov, “Chto stoit za kanonizatsiei Nikolaia II?” Nezavisimaia gazeta, August 12, 2000, at http://www.ng.ru/ideas/2000-08-12/1_nikolai.html (accessed April 14th, 2020); Marianne Leeper, “The Schism of the Russian Orthodox Church and the Canonization of Nicholas II and the Royal Family” (Ph.D. diss., University of Texas-Arlington, 2001), 66.

70 Anatolii Stepanov, “Na vopros, iabliaiutsia li ‘Ekaterinburgskie ostanki’ sviatymi moshchami, dolzhny otvetit΄ sami tsarstvennye mucheniki,” Russkaia narodnaia liniia, Pravoslavie.ru, June 24, 2017, at http://www.pravoslavie.ru/104654.html (accessed May 4, 2020).

71 Arsenii Oganesian, “‘Khristianstvo—eto vsegda podvig,’” Izvestia, July 9, 2018, at https://iz.ru/762492/arsenii-oganesian/khristianstvo-eto-vsegda-podvig (accessed April 14, 2020).

72 Kathy Rousselet, “Constructing Moralities around the Tsarist Family,” in Multiple Moralities and Religions in Post-Soviet Russia, ed. Jarrett Zigon (New York, 2011), 158.

73 The process of creating new saints is often driven by believers themselves. See, for example, Victoria Fomina, “Between Heroism and Sainthood: New Martyr Evgenii Rodionov as a Moral Model in Contemporary Russia,” History and Anthropology 29, no. 1 (February 2018): 101–20. See also Jeanne Kormina, “Russian Saint under Construction: Portraits and Icons of Starets Nikolay,” HSE Research Paper WP BRP 04/HUM/2012, April 9, 2012.

74 Wendy Slater, “Relics, Remains, and Revisionism: Narratives of Nicholas II in Contemporary Russia,” Rethinking History 9, no. 1 (February 2005): 53–70.

75 “Episkop Tikhon: chast’ tserkovnoi kommissii uverena v ritual’nom kharaktere ubiistva Romanovykh,” TASS, November 27, 2017, https://tass.ru/obschestvo/4763023 (accessed June 15, 2020).

76 Slater, “Relics, Remains, and Revisionism,” 64.

77 “Nikolai i Aleksandra: chetvert΄ veka liubvi (foto),” Pravoslavnyi mir, November 27, 2014, at https://www.pravmir.ru/nikolay-i-aleksandra-chetvert-veka-lyubvi-foto/ (accessed August 4, 2019).

78 “RPTs ustanovila bannery s tsitatami iz perepiski Nikolaia II s zhenoi,” Radio Svoboda, September 27, 2017, at https://www.svoboda.org/a/28760363.html (accessed April 14, 2020).

79 “RPTs protiv ‘Matil΄dy’: Moleben protiv kinoprem΄ery oshelomil dazhe sviashchennikov,” MK.ru, June 30, 2017, at http://www.mk.ru/social/2017/06/30/rpc-protiv-matildy-moleben-protiv-kinopremery-oshelomil-dazhe-svyashhennikov.html (accessed April 14, 2020).

80 Natal΄ia Poklonskaia, “Sozdateli fil΄ma ‘Matil΄da’ mogut byt privlecheny k ugolovnoi otvetstvennosti,” Natal΄ia Poklonskaia (blog), January 30, 2017, at http://poklonskaya-nv.livejournal.com/2017/01/30/ (accessed April 14, 2020). See also Aleksandr Baunov, “Razdvoenie loial΄nosti. Pochemu ne poluchaetsia ostanovit΄ kampaniiu protiv ‘Matil΄dy,’” Carnegie.ru, September 14, 2017, at http://carnegie.ru/commentary/73097 (accessed August 4, 2019).

81 “Dok. Fil΄m ‘Obolgannyi Gosudar’’ (polnaia versiia),” YouTube video, 1:44:14, posted by “Sed΄moi Angel,” October 19, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0mGtklsLIrw (accessed January 18, 2019, no longer available).

82 Maria Engström, “Religious Terror in Modern Russia,” Intersection: Russia/Europe/World, October 18, 2017, at http://intersectionproject.eu/article/society/religious-terror-modern-russia (accessed April 14, 2020)

83 “‘Khristianskogo gosudarstva’ ne sushchestvuet. No za nim, vozmozhno, stoit FSB. ‘Meduza’ vyiasnila, otkuda vzialis΄ pravoslavnye radikaly i chto pro nikh dumaiut v RPTs,” Meduza, September 20, 2017, at https://meduza.io (accessed April 14, 2020). See also Vladimir Rozanskij, “Aleksandr Kalinin, the War against ‘Matilda’ and Putin,” AsiaNews, September 22, 2017, at http://www.asianews.it/news-en/Aleksandr-Kalinin,-the-war-against-’Matilda’-and-Putin-41852.html (accessed April 14, 2020).

84 “Territoriia ‘Matil΄dy’: gde mozhno i gde nel΄zia smotret΄ fil΄m v Rossii. Karta,” Meduza, August 10, 2017, at https://meduza.io/feature/2017/08/10/territoriya-matildy-gde-mozhno-i-gde-nelzya-smotret-film-v-rossii-karta (accessed April 14, 2020).

85 “Muftii Moskvy predlozhil sniat΄ blokbaster o Nikolae II v otvet na ‘Matil΄du,” Interfax, August 9, 2017, at http://www.interfax.ru/moscow/574154 (accessed April 14, 2020).

86 “‘Poklonskuiu podstavili.’ Interv΄iu Alekseia Uchitelia—o ‘Matil΄de,’ Nikolae II i proverkakh prokuratury,” Meduza, November 8, 2016, at https://meduza.io/feature/2016/11/08/poklonskuyu-podstavili (accessed April 14, 2020).

87 “Ministerstvo kul΄tury: Ekspertiza Poklonskoi ne povliiaet na prokat ‘Matil΄dy’—ee avtory ne videli fil΄ma,” Meduza, April 25, 2017, at https://meduza.io/news/2017/04/25/minkult-ekspertiza-poklonskoy-ne-povliyaet-na-prokat-matildy-ee-avtory-ne-videli-filma (accessed April 14, 2020).

88 “V Gosdume napomnili nedovol΄nym fil΄mom ‘Matil΄da’ o prave na svobodu tvorchestva,” Interfax, February 13, 2017, at http://www.interfax.ru/russia/549602 (accessed April 14, 2020).