The research and writing of this article were completed during my tenure as a research fellow at the Harriman Institute, Columbia University, 1999-2000.

1. Anderson, Benedict, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism, 2d ed. (London, 1983), 205.Google Scholar

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3. See Urban, Michael, “Remythologizing the Russian State,” Europe-Asia Studies 50, no. 6 (1998): 969.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

4. “Post-Communist Russia Plumbs Its Soul, in Vain, for New Vision,” New York Times, 31 March 1998, Al. The competition for the national anthem continues under President Putin. See “Russia Considers a New Anthem, Hoping for One with Words,” New York Times, 23 November 2000, A 17; “Soviet Hymn Is Back, Creating Much Discord,” New York Times, 6 December 2000, A9.

5. Urban, “Remythologizing the Russian State,” 973.

6. See the chapter “The Zenith of Politics by Culture” in Brudny, Yitzhak M., ReinventingRussia: Russian Nationalism and the Soviet State, 1953-1991 (Cambridge, Mass., 1998), 221 Google Scholar.

7. On the changing terms of discussion applicable to the transformation, see Slobin, Greta N., “Introduction to Postcommunism: Rethinking the Second World,” a special issue oi NewFormations, no. 22 (Spring 1994): v–ix Google Scholar.

8. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 19.

9. Ivan Bunin quoted in Mikhailov, O. N., ed., Literatura russkogo zarubezh´ia: 1920-1940 (Moscow, 1993), 53.Google Scholar

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13. Ibid., 5. Raeff states that “most social classes of prerevolutionary Russia were represented abroad, although not quite in the same proportions.“

14. Ibid., 211-12.

15. For the importance of the occasion for “reexamining and reassessing the consensual norms of the intelligentsia” and the Soviet resolution “to make the commemoration an annual national event and to have a decree passed to that effect,” see Clark, Katerina, Petersburg: Crucible of Cultural Revolution (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), 157–59Google Scholar. Among the notable speeches on that occasion were those of Aleksandr Blok and Vladislav Khodasevich. Official Soviet commemorations of Pushkin´s birth were decreed in 1935 and became a major national celebration from 1936 onward.

16. Maklakov, V. A. quoted in Vandalkovskaia, M. G., “Nekotorye aspekty adaptatsii nauchnoi i politicheskoi emigratsii (1920-1930-e gg),” in Poliakov, Iu. A., ed., Istoriia rossiiskogozarubezh´ia: Problemy adaptatsii migrantov v XIX-XX vekakh (Moscow, 1996), 70.Google Scholar

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18. Ibid., xvix.

19. Merezhkovskii, Dmitrii quoted in Terapiano, Iu., Literaturnaia zhizn’ russkogo Parizhazapolveka (1924-1974): Essei, vospominaniia, stat´i (Paris, 1987), 48.Google Scholar

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21. Svetlana Boym, TheFuture of Nostalgia (New York, 2001), 41-48. As she explains, “restorative nostalgia” stresses nostos (home) and attempts a transhistorical reconstruction of a “mythical homeland.“

22. Clifford, James, Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth Century (Cambridge, Mass., 1997), 250.Google Scholar

23. Ibid., 251.

24. Although the historical context was different, this question persisted in the third wave. See the conference proceedings: Georges Nivat, ed., Odna Hi dve russkikh literatury? (Lausanne, 1981); the question was presented in reverse by Siniavskii, Andrei, “Dve literatury ili odna?” in Matich, Olga and Heim, Michael, eds., The Third Wave: Russian Literaturein Emigration (Ann Arbor, 1984), 23 Google Scholar.

25. For evidence of publishing activity on both sides of the border, see A. S.Anikin, et al., comps., Sovetskoe literaturovedenie i kritika, 1917-1925: Bibliograficheskii ukazatel’ literaturyna russkom iazyke, ed. Ryskin, Iu. D. (New York, 1994)Google Scholar.

26. According to Maguire's introduction, Sovetskoe literaturovedenie was completed in 1960 and submitted to “Nauka,” which wanted to exclude 400 items for political reasons. The volume was brought out thirty years later by Norman Ross Publishing in New York. For the terms of the polemic, see Slobin, Greta N., “Series on ‘Masters of Contemporary Prose' and the Literary Polemics of the 1920's,” in Jackson, Robert Louis and Rudy, Stephen, eds., Russian Formalism: A Retrospective Glance: A Festschrift in Honor of Victor Erlich (New Haven, 1985)Google Scholar.

27. Kelly, Catriona, “Russian Culture and Emigration,” in Kelly, Catriona and Shepherd, David, eds., Russian Cultural Studies: An Introduction (Oxford, 1998), 304.Google Scholar

28. Vladislav Khodasevich, “Tam ili zdes´?” Dni, no. 804 (25 September 1925); reprinted in Khodasevich, Vladislav, Sobranie sochinenii, ed. Malmstad, John and Hughes, Robert (Ann Arbor, 1990), 2:368 Google Scholar.

29. Mirskii, D. S., “O nyneshnem sostoianii russkoi literatury,” Blagonamerennyi, 1926, no. 1:90.Google Scholar

30. Smith, G. S., “Introduction: D. S. Mirsky, Literary Critic and Historian,” in Smith, G. S., ed., D. S. Mirsky: Uncollected Writings on Russian Literature (Berkeley, 1989), 24.Google Scholar

31. See D. Knut, “Russkii Monparnas,” Pasfedrae novosti, 1 December 1927; M. Slonim, “Literaturnyi dnevnik,” Volia Rossii, 1928, no. 7. Quoted in Struve, G., Russkaia literatura vizgnanii, 2d ed. (New York, 1956; Paris, 1984), 69 Google Scholar.

32. Adamovich, Georgii, “O literature v emigratsii,” Sovremennye zapiski 501 (1932): 331–32.Google Scholar

33. Ibid., 332.

34. Khodasevich, Vladislav, “Literatura v izgnanii,” Literaturnye stat´i i vospominaniia (New York, 1954), 259 Google Scholar. It is probably not coincidental that during this period two émigré writers, Viacheslav Ivanov and Boris Zaitsev, were working on a translation of Dante, whom Zaitsev called “the progenitor of all émigrés.” See Letter to A. L. Bern, 25 March 1943, quoted in Zh. Sheron, “Iz voennoi perepiski Ivanova-Razumnika s A. L. Bemom: Suzhdeniia o literature russkoi emigratsii,” in V G. Belous, ed., Ivanov-Razumnik: Lichnost´. Tvorchestvo.Rol’ v kul´ture (St. Petersburg, 1998), 150. Khodasevich elaborates this theme in his essays on the nineteenth-century Polish émigré poets, Adam Mickiewicz and Sygmunt Krasinski, who, together with Juliusz Slowacki, “carried Polish literature to greater heights than it had ever known, or achieved later.” See Khodasevich, Vladislav, “Iridion,” hbrannaiaprom, ed. Berberova, N. (New York, 1982), 76 Google Scholar.

35. Khodasevich, “Literatura v izgnanii,” 262. In this argument for the deterritorialization of Russian émigré culture, Khodasevich´s position is remarkably close to that expressed by Erich Auerbach in his postwar essay “Philologie und Weltliteratür” (1953) with its striking statement that “our philological home is the earth: it can no longer be the nation.” See Said's, Edward translation of Auerbach´s essay in The Centennial Review 13 (1969): 17 Google Scholar.

36. Khodasevich, “Literatura v izgnanii,” 263. Gleb Struve concurred with this position in his response to a letter from Khodasevich dated 18 August 1933; see Struve, G., “Iz moego arkhiva: 1. Pisma i stat´ia V. Khodasevicha,“Mosty, 1970, no. 15:399 Google Scholar.

37. V Khodasevich, untitled notes on Russian émigré literature (n.p., ca. 1937-39), 4 pp., typescript with handwritten corrections. The Manuscript Collection of M. M. Karpovich, Papers on VI. Khodasevich, Bakhmeteff Archive, Columbia University.

38. Veidle, “Traditsionnoe i novoe v russkoi literature,” 9-10.

39. Struve, Russkaia literatura v izgnanii, 7. A similar distinction between “exiles” and “people in diaspora” is drawn by Hamid Naficy in The Making oj Exile Cultures: Iranian Televisionin Los Angeles (Minneapolis, 1993), 17; Khachig Tololyan writes that “the desire to return to the homeland is considered a necessary part of the definition of diaspora,” in “Rethinking Diaspora(s): Stateless Power in the Transnational Moment,” Diaspora: A Journal ojTransnational Studies 5, no. 1 (Spring 1996): 14. Paul Gilroy affirms that “some, though not all, versions of diaspora consciousness accentuate the possibility and desirability of return.“ See Gilroy, “Diaspora: Social Ecology of Identification,” Against Race: Imagining PoliticalCulture beyond the Color Line (Cambridge, Mass., 2000), 124.

40. Struve, Russkaia literatura v izgnanii, 9. A third edition of the book, with corrections and additions, was published in 1996 in St. Petersburg, edited by V B. Kudriavtseva and K. Iu. Lappo-Danilevskii, with Struve's introduction and a short biographical dictionary of Russia Abroad.

41. Adamovich, Georgii, Vklad russkoi emigratsii v mirovuiu kul´turu (Paris, 1961), 6–9 Google Scholar. For a synopsis of the argument in French translation, see Adamovich, Georgii, LApport deImmigration Russe a la culture universelle, trans. Trofimov, André (Paris, 1962), 6–7 Google Scholar.

42. See Terapiano's, Iu. K. introduction, “O zarubezhnoi poezii 1920-1960 godov,” to the poetry collection, Muza diaspory (Frankfurt am Main, 1960), 12 Google Scholar. See also Kelly, “Russian Culture and Emigration,” 303.

43. “Foreword: Who Are the émigré Writers?” Triquarterly, no. 27 (Spring 1973): 6.

44. Andreev, “Ob osobennostiakh i osnovnykh etapakh razvitiia russkoi literatury za rubezhom,” in Poltoratzky, ed., Russkaia literatura v emigratsii, 21.

45. Andreev, “Ob osobennostiakh i osnovnykh etapakh,” 22.

46. Ibid., 19. On linguistic nationalism, see also Renan, E., “What Is a Nation?” in Bhabha, Homi K., ed., Nation and Narration (London, 1990), 8–22 Google Scholar.

47. Bowlt, J., Segal, D., Fleishman, L., “Problemy izucheniia literatury Russkoi emigratsii pervoi treti XX veka,” Slavica Hierosolymitana 3 (1978): 88.Google Scholar

48. See also Mark von Hagen´s statement on émigré politics as an alternative trajectory to imperial or Bolshevik thought in his response to the panel “Nations and Empire in Russia” at the Fifth Annual World Convention of the Association for the Study of Nationalities, Columbia University, 13-15 April 2000.

49. Tololyan, “Stateless Power: Diaspora in the Transnational Moment,” 28-29.

50. Naficy, Making ofExile Cultures, 16.

51. A useful “typology of the conservatives” can be found in Dunlop, J. B., The Rise ofRussia and theFall of the Soviet Empire (Princeton, 1993), 128–29Google Scholar.

52. Afanas´ev, A. L., “Neutolennaia liubov',” in Afanas´ev, A. L., ed., Literatura russkogozarubezh´ia: Antologiia v shesti tomakh, vol. 1, bk. 1, 1920-1925 (Moscow, 1990), 7.Google Scholar

53. The academic importance of the field can be seen in the publication of bibliographical sources, for example: Alekseev, A. D., Literatura russkogo zarubezh´ia: Knigi 1917-1940. Materialy k bibliografii (St. Petersburg, 1993)Google Scholar; Ukazatel´: Pisateli russkogo zarubezh´ia(1918-1940), pt. 1 (Moscow, 1994). Note also such collaborative ventures as Mnukhin, L. A., with Gladkova, T. L., Dubrovina, T. I., Losskii, V K., and Struve, N. A., eds., Russkoezarubezh´e:Khronika nauchnoi, kul´turnoi i obshchestvennoi zhizni, 1920-1940. Frantsiia. (Moscow, 1995)Google Scholar.

54. Nikoliukin, A. N., “Vvedenie: Russkoe zarubezh´e i literatura,” in Mikhailov, O. N., Nikoliukin, A. N., et al., eds., Russkoe literaturnoe zarubezh´e: Sbornik obzorov i materialov (Moscow, 1991), 1:5.Google Scholar

55. Ibid., 1:7.

56. T. V Marchenko, “Osorgin (1878-1942),” in Mikhailov, ed., Literaturarusskogozarubezh´ia:1920-1940, 292. Quoted in a review of Bulgakov's play TheDays of the Turbins in the Paris paper, Poslednie novosti, no. 2941 (11 April 1929): 3.

57. Marchenko, “Osorgin,” 294.

58. E. P. Chelyshev, “Kul´turnoe nasledie rossiiskoi emigratsii,” in Mikhailov, ed., Literaturarusskogo zarubezh´ia, 1920-1940, 6.

59. Ibid., 55.

60. A. V Kvakin, “Nekotorye voprosy izucheniia istorii assimiliatsii rossiiskoi intelligentsii v emigratsii,” in Poliakov, ed., Istoriia rossiiskogo zarubezh´ia, 75.

61. Urban, “Remythologizing the Russian State,” 973.

62. Scanlan, James, “The Silver Age in Postcommunist Perspective,” in Scanlan, James P., ed., Russian Thought after Communism: The Recovery of a Philosophical Heritage (Armonk, N.Y, 1994), 73 Google Scholar. See also the essay by Stanislav Bemovich Dzhimbinov, “The Return of Russian Philosophy” in this volume. I would like to thank Nancy Condee for drawing my attention to this publication.

63. See Maslin´s, M. A. introduction, “Veliko neznanie Rossii … ,” to Russkaia ideia (Moscow, 1992), 12 Google Scholar. For a later study that addresses the complexity of the concept, see Kolonitskii, B., ‘“Russkaia ideia i ideologiia Fevral´skoi revoliutsii,” in Danilevskii, A. and Dotsenko, S., eds., Kul´tura russkoi diaspory: Samorejleksiia i samoidentifikatsiia (Tartu, 1996), 11–36 Google Scholar.

64. On the émigrés’ ambivalence toward the Silver Age, see Raeff, Russia Abroad, 102-3.

65. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, “Peterburg Andreia Belogo (1913, 1916),” Novyi mir, 1997, no. 7. In a recent study, Brudny, Reinventing Russia, refers to “an open campaign by young Russian nationalist intellectuals staged in the spring 1989 to rehabilitate the political ideas of Solzhenitsyn and transform him into the spiritual leader of Russian nationalist opposition to perestroika” (322-77).

66. See the chapter “Solzhenitsyn and the Russian Question,” in Allensworth, W., TheRussian Question: Nationalism, Modernization, and Post-Communist Russia (New York, 1998)Google Scholar.

67. Solzhenitsyn, “PeterburgAndreia Belogo (1913, 1916),” 192.

68. Ibid., 195.

69. See Natal´ia Ivanova's response to the questionnaire in Literaturnaia gazeta, January 2000, no. 1-2, regarding the main literary events of the past year and the century.

70. Borenstein, Eliot, “Introduction,” in Lipovetsky, Mark, Russian Postmodernist Fiction:Dialogue with Chaos, ed. Borenstein, Eliot (Armonk, N.Y., 1999), 9.Google Scholar

71. Bogomolov, N., “Ob etoi knige i ee avtorakh,” Serebrianyi vek: Memuary (Moscow, 1990), 8.Google Scholar

72. “Vmesto predisloviia,” in Ivanov, V V., Toporov, V. N., and Tsiv'ian, T. V., eds., Serebrianyivek v Rossii (Moscow, 1993), 3 Google Scholar. For a detailed investigation of and arguments with the émigré provenance of the term Silver Age, see Ronen, Omry, TheFallacy of the Silver Agein Twentieth-Century Russian Literature (Amsterdam, 1997)Google Scholar.

73. See Bogomolov, N. A., MikhailKuzmin: Stat´i i materialy (Moscow, 1995)Google Scholar. In the author's preface, Bogomolov writes that it was not possible to write a dissertation on either Kuzmin or Khodasevich at Moskovskii gosudarstvennyi universitet in 1973.

74. This is acknowledged in Kanishcheva's, N. E. introduction to Russkoe zarubezh´e: Zolotaiakniga emigratsii. Pervaia tret’ XX veka. Entsiklopedicheskii biograficheskii slovar´ (Moscow, 1997)Google Scholar. The project, first conceived in Paris in the early 1930s, was published in Russia in the 1990s to stimulate the study of émigré culture in future generations.

75. Adamovich, Georgii, Kriticheskaia proza, S togo berega: Kritiki russkogo zarubezh´ia o literature sovetskoi epokhi (Moscow, 1996), 3.Google Scholar

76. See Etkind, Efim, Nivat, Georges, Serman, Ilya, and Strada, Vittorio, eds., Histoire dela litterature russe: Le XX-e Siècle, vol. 1, l´Age d ‘argent (Paris, 1987)Google Scholar. In Russian: Efim Etkind, Zhorzh Nivat, Ilia Serman, Vittorio Strada, eds., Istoriia russkoi lileratury, XXvek: Serebrianyivek (Moscow, 1995).

77. Basinskii, P. V. and Fediakin, S. R., eds., Sovremennoe russkoe zarubezh´e, Shkola klassikov. Kniga dlia uchenika i uchitelia (Moscow, 1998).Google Scholar

78. Ibid., 15.

79. Ibid., 10.

80. Ibid., 17.

81. Ibid., 14.

82. Ibid., 19.

83. Report of Agence France Presse, cited in “Putin´s Cemetery Visit Aims to Lay Soviet-Era Ghosts,” in Johnson´s Russia List, 1 November 2000.

84. Nepomnyashchy, Catharine Theimer, “Pushkin at 200,” The Harriman Review 12, no. 2–3 (Winter 1999-2000): 4.Google Scholar

85. Clifford, Routes, 252.