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Archeologists Imagine Ukraine: Social Scientists and Nation Building in the Nineteenth Century
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 19 September 2024
Abstract
Russia’s brutal invasion in February 2022 revitalized considerations about how Ukraine can contribute to historiographical issues related to the origins of nation-statehood. This essay contributes to that discussion by returning to the 19th century and exploring how the participants in multiple archeological congresses, nascent social scientists confident in the empirical objectivity of their evidence, envisioned Ukraine. Borrowing from Benedict Anderson’s commonplace about a nation as an “imagined community,” I highlight the contestation between nationalist and imperialist discourses in the emergent social sciences. Although the Versailles Peace Conference, which denied Ukraine the opportunity to “self-determine” as a modern political entity, revealed the limits of the Western political imagination in 1919, many of the ideas presented at these congresses continue to inform the cultural and geographical borders of Ukraine.
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- Copyright © The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Association for Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies
References
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27 Antonovich was also being investigated at this time for possible ties to Hromada. TsDIAK (Central State Historical Archives of Ukraine), f. 473, op. 233, d. 20, l. 211.
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30 Hen-Konarski, 731.
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33 Ibid., 306.
34 Ibid., lxvlxix. Zhitetskii was also a member of Hromada.
35 Ibid., lix-lx.
36 V. V. Stasov, Russkii narodnii ornament (St. Petersburg, 1872).
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38 The Ems Ukaz is published in an appendix in Alexei Miller, The Ukrainian Question: Russian Empire and Nationalism in the 19th Century (Budapest, 2003), 267–74. It was essentially the codification of the secret Valuev circular, issued in 1863, which forbad the publication of religious and educational texts in Ukrainian, permitting only belles-lettres.
39 Ivan L. Rudnytsky argued about late nineteenth-century historical consciousness: it “was not endowed with a fully crystallized Ukrainian national awareness, usually possessed it in an embryonic stage in the form of a ‘South Russian’ sectionalism, or ‘territorial patriotism.’” In “The Role of the Ukraine in Modern History,” Slavic Review 22, no. 2 (June 1963): 202.
40 V. Zavintevich, “Iz vospominanii V. B. Antonoviche, Kak arkheolog,” 338, described his methodology as much more careful and precise than even that of Rudolf Virchow, a world renowned prehistorical archeologist. Multiple testimonials to Antonovich, some on the occasion of his death in 1908 and others from a conference held in Kyiv to honor the 20th anniversary of it, are republished in the section “Na sluzhbi Klio: Naukova diiatel΄nist’” in Korotkyi and Ul΄ianovskyi, eds., Sin Ukraini, vol. 2, 229–454.
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42 In May 2023, Yale University sponsored a conference on “Imperial Plow: Settler Colonialism in the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union,” a testament to how relevant the topic is becoming to the field. D. I. Bahalii also wrote on the history of the colonization of New Russia, D. I. Bahalii, Kolonizatsiia Novorossiiskogo kraia i pervye shagi ego no puti kul΄tury (Kyiv, 1889). This was published first in Kievskaia starina.
43 G. I. Peretiatkovich, “Malorossiane v Orenburgskom krae pre nachale ego zaselenii,” Trudy shestogo arkheologicheskogo s”ezda v Odesse, vol. 2 (Odessa, 1881), 373–97. A standard reasoning for Russian colonization of Ukraine was that Little Russians were inferior agriculturalists.
44 I. Markevich, “Odessa v narodnoi poezii,” Trudy shestogo arkheologicheskogo, vol. 2, 398–418
45 Izvestiia o zaniatiiakh 7-ogo arkh. 6–20 August (Odessa, 1887): 3.
46 Aleksander Smirnov, Vlast΄ i organizatsiia arkheologicheskoi nauki v Rossiiskoi Imperii (Moscow, 2011), 173.
47 The family breadwinner, she was the more accomplished of the two. Andreas Kappeler wrote an “imperial biography” of the couple to highlight the “entangled” histories of Russia and Ukraine: Russland und die Ukraine: Verflochtene Biographien und Geschichten (Vienna, 2012).
48 V. M. Ploshchanskii, “Akty Kholmskikh sudov XV-XVII vv. V ukazaniiakh dlia istorii i etnografii russkogo Zabuzh΄ia,” in Trudy deviatogo arkheologicheskogo sʺezda v Vilne, vol. 1 (Moscow, 1895), 154–65.
49 N. F. Beliashevskii, Arkheologicheskii sʺezd v Rige (Kyiv, 1896), 36.
50 D. I. Bahalii, Ocherki iz istorii kolonizatsii stepnoi okrainy moskovskogo gosudarstvo (Moscow, 1887).
51 D. I. Bahalii, “Magdeburgskoe pravo v gorodakh levoberezhnoi Malorossii,” in Trudy desiatogo arkheologicheskogo sʺezda v Rige, vol. 1 (Moscow, 1899), 245–55.
52 A. I. Markevich noted that “the desire of some members to hold this congress in Warsaw met with considerable opposition, including from members of Warsaw University.” In “XI-ii Kievskii Kongress,” Izvestiia Tavricheskoi uchenoi arkhivnoi kommissii 30 (1899): 65.
53 Uvarova, Byloe, 175.
54 Valentyna Nadolska, “Volyn within the Russian Empire: Migratory Processes and Cultural Interaction,” in Kimitaka Matsuzato, ed., Imperiology: From Empirical Knowledge to Discussing the Russian Empire (Sapporo, 2007), 85–110.
55 Antonovich had met Mel΄nik in 1879 when she was his student at the Kyiv Higher Women’s Courses, where the two became intimately involved. Unable to divorce his wife, Antonovich could not marry Mel΄nik until the former succumbed to cancer in 1901.
56 Smirnov, Vlast΄, 186.
57 O. A. Zabudkova, “Olena Petrivna Radakova—istorik, etnograf, gromads΄ka diiachka,” Luganshchina: Kraeznavchi rozvidki: Materiali IV Vseukrains΄koi nauk.-prakt. Konf. DZ LNU imeni Tarasa Shevchenka, (2021), 59–64.
58 N. I. Platonova, “Paleoetnologicheskaia shkola v arkheologii i F. K. Volkov,” in Vestnik Tomskogo gosud. Universiteta, vol. 315 (2008), 96–103.
59 E. P. Radakova, “O reviziiakh v Malorossii v XVIII stoletii,” in Trudy odinnadtsatogo arkheologicheskogo sʺezda v Kieve, vol. 2 (Moscow, 1902), 105–125.
60 V. I. Shcherbina, “Poslednye sledy kazachestva v Pravoberezhnoi Ukraine,” and “Ukrainskie starostva po liustratsiam XVIII v.,” in Trudy odinnadtsatogo arkheologicheskogo sʺezda v Kieve, vol. 2 (Moscow, 1902), 75; 90–94.
61 D. I. Iavornits΄kii, “O zaporozhskikh sechakh,” Ibid., 96. On the changing tropes of Cossacks and national identity, see Serhii Plokhy, The Cossack Myth: History and Nationhood in the Age of Empires (New York, 2012).
62 D. I. Bahalii, “Arkhologicheskaia karta Kharkovskoi gubernii,” in Trudy dvenadtsatogo arkheologicheskogo sʺezda v Kharkove, vol. 1 (Moscow, 1905), I-IV, 1–92.
63 A. I. Stepovich, 12-ii sʺezd v Kharkove (Kyiv, 1902), 23.
64 B. S. Poznanskii, “Odezhda Malorossov,” Trudy dvenadtsatogo, vol. 3, 178–210.
65 A. Ia. Iefymenko, “Litovskorusskie danniki i ukh dani,” ibid., 30–38.
66 A. Ia. Iefymenko, “K voprosu o bratstvakh,” ibid., 39–44.
67 N. F. Sumtsov, “О pokrovitel΄stve kobzariam i lirniki,” ibid., 402–405.
68 Svod zakonov, vol. 14, part 4 (Ustav o preduprezhdenii i presechenii prestuplenij), Section III, Chapter 5 (O nishchenstve), Articles 229–244.
69 A. N. Malinka, “Svedeniia o kobzariakh i lirniki,” Trudy dvenadtsatogo, 406–408.
70 Izvestiia XIII Arkh. Sʺezda v Ekaterinoslave (Kharkiv, 1905), 2.
71 Uvarova, Byloe, 184.
72 Today, the museum bears Iavornits΄kii’s name. M. M. Oliinyk-Shubravs΄ka, D. I. Iavornyts΄kyi: zhytia, fol΄klorystychno-etnohrafichna dial΄nist΄ (Kyiv, 1972). N. V. Karmazina, “XIII Arkheologicheskii sʺezd v Ekaterinoslave,” Uchenye zapiski Tavricheskogo nats. Universiteta, vol. 27 (66): 1 (214): 34.
73 Even among Ukrainophiles, the “Galician language” could be criticized for having an excessively Polish influence. Hillis discusses this controversy at the congress, Children of Rus΄, 108.
74 Smirnov, Vlast΄, 187.
75 Trudy trinadtsatogo arkheologicheskogo sʺezda v Ekaterinoslave, vol. 2 (Moscow, 1908), 201.
76 Izvestiia XIII Arkh. sʺezda v Ekaterinoslave (Kharkiv, 1905), 114. Praising Taras Shevchenko, the tsar’s new law, and the Cossack blood flowing down the Dnipro, Sumtsov boldly anticipated increased freedoms for Ukraine. Idem., 16. Smirnov, Vlast΄, 187.
77 Izvestiia XIII Arkh. sʺezda, (Kharkiv, 1905), 15–16.
78 Ibid., 5.
79 Painter Ilya Repin used Iavornits΄kii as the model for the scribe in his legendary “Cossacks write a letter to the Turkish Sultan.” Bahalii, though, criticized Iavornitsk΄ii’s penchant for the popular over the factual in his textbook, Russkaia istorigrafiia (Kharkiv, 1911), 450–52.
80 These reproductions are included as an appendix to the second volume of the Proceedings: Trudy trinadtsatogo arkheologicheskogo sʺezda v Ekaterinoslave, vol. 2 (Moscow, 1908).
81 Known as “the Ruin,” Mykola Kostomarov serialized this era: “Ruina, istoricheskaia monografiia iz zhizni Malorossii, 1663–1687 gg.,” in Vestnik Evropy, 1879–1880. Publisher missing.
82 Trudy trinadtsatogo, vol. 2, 200.
83 Izvestiia XIII Arkh. Sʺezda, (Kharkiv, 1905), 29–32.
84 M. V. Dovnar-Zapolskii, another Antonovich mentee, accused her of subjectivity, ibid., 24–26.
85 Iefymenko, the first female to be awarded a doctorate at a Russian university, hers from Kharkiv, had just written two volumes on “South Russia,” published by L΄viv’s Shevchenko Society. She followed this with a textbook for gymnasium students in 1909. She wrote in Russian, and Bahalii later translated it into Ukrainian.
86 Serhii Plokhy, Unmaking Imperial Russia: Mykhailo Hrushevsky and the Writing of Ukrainian History (Toronto, 2005). He discusses Iefymenko, 104–106.
87 Uvarova, Byloe, 187.
88 Discussed in V. E. Rudakov, 14-ii arkheologicheskii sʺezd i tysiacheletie goroda Chernigova (St. Petersburg, 1908), 48.
89 Trudy chetyrnadtsatogo arkheologicheskogo sʺezda v Chernigove, vol. 2 (Moscow, 1911), 50.
90 S. P. Shchavelev, Istorik Russkoi zemli. Zhizn΄ i Trudy D. Ia. Samokvasova (Kursk, 1998). See also A. N. Golotvin, D. Ia. Samokvasov i izuchenie slaviano-russkikh drevnostei (Voronezh, 2014).
91 D. Ia. Samokvasov, Raskopki Severianskikh kurganov v Chernigove vo vremia XIV arkheologicheskogo sʺezda (Moscow, 1916), 16.
92 Plokhy, Unmaking, 137–39.
93 Trudy chetyrnadtsatogo arkheologicheskogo sʺezda v Chernigove, vol. 2 (Moscow, 1911), 5.
94 Smirnov, Vlast΄, 188.
95 “Protokoly,” Trudy chetyrnadtsatogo, vol. 1 (Moscow, 1910), 8.
96 Smirnov, Vlast΄, 134.
97 D. Ia. Samokvasov, “Severianskie kurgany i ikh znachenie dlia istorii,” Trudy tret΄iago arkheologicheskogo sʺezda v Kieve, vol. 1 (Kyiv, 1878), 185–224. Beginning with Ludwig von Schlözer, architect of the Norman theory, Samokvasov quoted eleven historians who doubted a developed Slavic culture before 862: Proiskhozhdenie russkogo naroda (Moscow, 1908), 4–5.
98 At the 2nd Congress, Ilovaiskii cited Byzantine and Arabic sources and argued that the calling of three brothers to form a state “made no sense.” Trudy vtorogo arkheologicheskogo sʺezda v Sanktpeterburge, vol. 2 (St. Petersburg, 1881), 28.
99 Rechi, proiznonennye v torzhestvennom iubileinom zasadenii XIV Arkh. Sʺezda (Chernigov, 1909), 9–10.
100 D. Ia. Samokvasov, “Plan arkheologicheskikh rabot po sobraniiu i sistematizatsiia drevnsotei Chernigovshchiny dlia XIV arkheologicheskogo sʺezda,” in V. K. Trutovskii, ed., Trudy Moskovskago predvaritel΄nago komiteta po ustroiistvu chetyrnadtsatago Arkheologicheskago sʺezda (Moscow, 1906–1908), 4–5.
101 Plokhy, Unmaking, 128–31.
102 Faith Hillis, “Modernist Visions and Mass Politics in Late Imperial Kiev,” in Jan C. Behrends and Martin Kohlrausch, eds., Races to Modernity: Metropolitan Aspirations in Eastern Europe, 1890–1940 (Budapest, 2014), 49–71.
103 Tatiana Tairova-Yakovleva, Ivan Mazepa and the Russian Empire, trans. Jan Surer (Montreal, 2020).
104 G. G. Pavlutskii, “O proiskhozhdenii form Ukrainsokogo zodchestvo,” Trudy chetyrnadtsatogo, vol. 2, 68. Pavlutskii also presented at the next congress in Novgorod in 1911 on the Ukrainian influence on the Moscow Baroque.
105 N. V. Sultanov, “Mazepin Dom v Chernigove,” ibid., 115.
106 “O myzei g. Tarnovskogo,” Arkheologicheskie izvetsiia i zametki no. 9–10 (1898): 303–304.
107 V. E. Rudakov, 14-ii arkheologicheskii sʺezd i tysiacheletie goroda Chernigova (St. Petersburg, 1908), 15–16.
108 F. F. Gornostaev, “Stroitel΄stvo Grafov Razumovskikh v Chernigovshchine,” Trudy chetyrnadtsatogo, vol. 2, 167–218.
109 Levchenko had reported the disrepair at Baturin at the 3rd congress in Kyiv: “Ob unichtozhenii pamiatnikov stariny v Iuzhnoi Rossii,” Trudy tret΄iago, vol. 2, 309–19.
110 I. Pokrovskii, XIV Vseross. Arkh. sʺezd v g. Chernigov, 1908, Avg. 1–12 (Kazan, 1909), 89–91.
111 Baturin was restored and ceremoniously reopened it in 2009 by Ukrainian President Viktor Iushchenko.
112 S. P. Shelukhin, “Nazvanie ‘Ukraina,’” Trudy chetyrnadtsatogo, vol. 2, 71–72.
113 Ibid., 85–86.
114 Ibid., 114. S. P. Shelukhin became one of the most adamant proponents of the ethnonym “Ukrainian”: Zvidky pokhodiat΄ nazvy “Rusyny, Rus΄, Halychane, Malorosy, Ukraintsi (Prague, 1928).
115 Amnesty allowed him to return to Russia, but he was forbidden to live in Kyiv.
116 Paraphrasing Cemil Aydin in “Rethinking Nationalism,” American Historical Review 127, no. 1 (2022): 312.
117 S. Shelukhin, Ukraine, Poland and Russia and The Right of the Free Disposition of the Peoples (Washington, DC, 1919), 8. He was referring to the Congress of the Subjugated Peoples of Russia, convened in Kyiv on 21–28 September 1917 by the Ukrainian Central Rada.
118 Stepan Rudnitsky, Ukraine, the Land and its People: An Introduction to its Geography (New York, 1918 [1910]). He was particularly keen to what Russia had done in regard to “denationalization” of Ukraine, 154.
119 Ibid. Echoing Markevich, he wrote, 16: “How many cultural and warlike memories are connected with the Black Sea! How much Ukrainian blood has mingled with its waters!”
120 “Treaty of Peace with Germany (Treat of Versailles)” at www.census.gov/history/pdf/treaty_of_versailles-112018.pdf (accessed April 1, 2024).
121 Ibid., 14. Tragically, Iefymenko was murdered by Symon Petliura’s Ukrainian National Army in December 1918.
122 DAOO (State Archive of Odessa Oblast), f. 153, op. 1, d. 45, l. 1.
123 As at Versailles, the west remained ambivalent about nation-statehood as “natural” for post-Soviet Ukraine. In his “Chicken Kiev” speech, President George H. W. Bush warned Ukrainians to abjure a “suicidal nationalism,” a jab against the anti-Russianists. A year earlier, Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher implied that the Baltic states had the right of self-determination, but not Ukraine. Their equivocations reaffirm the political sway of methodological nationalism.
124 Von Hagen, 673.
125 Snyder, Timothy, “Integration and Disintegration: Europe, Ukraine, and the World,” Slavic Review 74, no. 4 (Winter 2015): 696Google Scholar.
126 Nadiia Bureiko and Teodor Lucian Moga, “‘Bounded Europeanisation’: The Case of Ukraine,” in Mike Mannin and Paul Flenley, eds., The European Union and Its Eastern Neighbourhood: Europeanisation and Its Twenty-First-century Contradictions (Manchester, 2018), 71–85. Or as Serhii Plokhy has argued, Ukraine has historically been The Gates of Europe (New York, 2021 [2015]).
127 The press has covered this topic at length. For example: Brian Bushard, “These Are Some of The Most Famous Ukrainian Works of Art Looted by Russia,” Forbes, January 14, 2023.