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Anti-Muslim Fear Narrative and the Ban on Said Nursi's Works as “Extremist Literature” in Russia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 May 2020

Mustafa Tuna
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Abstract

This article analyzes the causes and consequences of Islamophobia in the Russian Federation following the story of the Russian ban on the works of a scholar of Islam from Turkey, Bediuzzaman Said Nursi (1878–1960), despite the overall positive reception of his ideas and followers by Russia's Muslims. It positions Russia's existing domestic anti-Muslim prejudices, which evolved in the contexts of the Chechen conflict and the influx of migrant workers from culturally Muslim former Soviet republics to cosmopolitan Russian cities, against the background of the post-9/11 global fear narrative about Muslims. These Islamophobic attitudes in turn informed and justified anti-Muslim policies in Russia, as the Russian state, following broader trends of centralization and illiberalization in the country, abandoned the pluralist policies toward religion of the early post-Soviet years and reverted to the late-Soviet model of regulation and containment in the past two decades.

Type
Post-Communist Islam in a Post-9/11 World: The State of the Religious Marketplace
Information
Slavic Review , Volume 79 , Issue 1 , Spring 2020 , pp. 28 - 50
Copyright
Copyright © Association for Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies 2020

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References

1 İhsan Atasoy, Üstad’ın Manevi Evladı, Fena Fi’n-nur: Mustafa Sungur (Istanbul, 2009), 253; “Said Nursi’yi Misafir Eden Kosturma Camii İbadete Açılıyor,” Risale Haber, May 5, 2017, at http://www.risalehaber.com/said-nursiyi-misafir-eden-kosturma-camii-ibadete-aciliyor-300544h.htm(accessed February 4, 2020); and “V Kostrome otkryli stroivshuiusia pochti 13 let mechet,’” 7x7, May 6, 2017, at https://7x7-journal.ru/item/94711 (accessed February 4, 2020).

2 “Muftiii Gainutdin: Memorial΄naia mechet΄ v Kostrome uvekovechila pamiat΄ vsekh geroev Velikoi Otechestvennoi Voiny,” Musul΄mane Rossii, May 5, 2017, at http://www.dumrf.ru/common/event/12309 (accessed February 4, 2020).

3 Ravil΄ Gainutdin, “Zakliuchenie Sovet muftiev Rossii,” No. 12, December 20, 2004.

4 “Kostroma Camiinin Hutbesindeki Said Nursi Vurgusu,” Risale Haber, May 6, 2017, at http://www.risalehaber.com/kostroma-caminin-hutbesindeki-said-nursi-vurgusu-300606h.htm (accessed February 4, 2020).

5 Vitalii Ponomarev, “Rossiiskie spetssluzhby protiv “Risale-i Nur”: 2001–2012,” Pravozashchitnii tsentr “Memorial,” 2012, at https://memohrc.org/ru/reports/rossiyskie-specsluzhby-protiv-risale-i-nur-2001-2012 (accessed February 4, 2020) offers a detailed account of this ban and its consequences. Also see, among many reports on the subject by the Norwegian human rights organization Forum 18: Geraldine Fagan, “Officials Deny Harassing Muslim Women’s Study Group,” Forum 18, July 11, 2017, at http://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=992 (accessed February 4, 2020); and Victoria Arnold, “Ten Years’ Imprisonment for Religious Meetings?,” Forum 18, January 26, 2017, at http://forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2250&pdf=Y (accessed February 4, 2020).

6 Galina M. Yemelianova, Russia and Islam: A Historical Survey (Houndmills, Eng., 2002), 137–93; E. S. Il΄ina, A. V. Korotaev and D. A. Khalturina eds., Islamofobiia v Moskve (Moscow, 2003); Alexander Verkhovsky, “Russian Approaches to Radicalism and ‘Extremism’ as Applied to Nationalism and Religion,” in Roland Dannreuther and Luke March, eds., Russia and Islam: State, Society and Radicalism (New York, 2010), 26–43; Geraldine Fagan, Believing in Russia: Religious Policy after Communism (New York, 2013), 53–171; and Marlene Laruelle and Natalia Yudina, “Islamophobia in Russia: Trends and Societal Context,” in Olga Oliker, ed., Religion and Violence in Russia: Context, Manifestations, and Policy (Lanham, MD.; Washington, D. C., Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2018), 43–62.

7 For an accessible biography of Said Nursi in English, see Şükran Vahide, Islam in Modern Turkey: An Intellectual Biography of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi (Albany, 2005). For an introduction to the Risale-i Nur, see Colin Turner, The Qur’an Revealed: A Critical Analysis of Said Nursi’s Epistles of Light (Berlin, 2013)

8 Mustafa Tuna, “At the Vanguard of Contemporary Muslim Thought: Reading Said Nursi into the Islamic Tradition,” in Journal of Islamic Studies 28, no. 3 (September 2017): 311–40.

9 See Ali Mermer, “Aspects of Religious Identity: The Nurcu Movement in Turkey Today” (PhD diss., University of Durham, 1985); and M. Hakan Yavuz, Islamic Political Identity in Turkey (Oxford, 2005), especially 151–79.

10 Eren Tasar, Soviet and Muslim: The Institutionalization of Islam in Central Asia (New York, 2017), especially 298–364. Also see Yaacov Ro’i, Islam in the Soviet Union: From the Second World War to Gorbachev (London, 2000); and Devin Deweese, “Islam and the Legacy of Sovietology: A Review Essay on Yaacov Ro’i’s Islam in the Soviet Union,” in Journal of Islamic Studies 13, no. 3 (September 2002): 298–330.

11 Dmitrii Makarov and Rafik Mukhametshin, “Official and Unofficial Islam,” in Hilary Pilkington and Galina M. Yemelianova, eds., Islam in Post-Soviet Russia: Public and Private Faces (New York, 2003), 117–63; and Roland Dannreuther, “Russian Discourses and Approaches to Islam and Islamism,” in Roland Dannreuther and Luke March, eds., Russia and Islam: State, Society and Radicalism (New York, 2010), 9–25.

12 Atasoy, Mustafa Sungur, 239–75, especially 247. For examples of pre-Soviet Muslim connections, see James H. Meyer, Turks across Empires: Marketing Muslim Identity in the Russian-Ottoman Borderlands, 1856–1914 (Oxford, 2014).

13 There is little written on this movement. The best general consideration of the subject can be found in M. Ali Kirman, “Türkiye’de Yeni Bir Dinî Cemaat Olarak ‘Süleymancılık’” (Ph. D. diss., Ankara University, 2000).

14 On the Gülen Movement, see Joshua D. Hendrick, Gülen: The Ambiguous Politics of Market Islam in Turkey and the World (New York, 2013). Being published in 2013, this book does not address the incident of an aborted coup in Turkey in July 2016 that heavily implicated the Gülen Movement and led to its disbandment by the Turkish state under highly controversial circumstances. For a collection of insights on these developments, see M. Hakan Yavuz and Bayram Balcı, eds., Turkey’s July 15th Coup: What Happened and Why (Salt Lake City, 2018).

15 For an example of how this dynamic unfolded in the case of Uzbekistan, see Bernardo Teles Fazendeiro, “Uzbekistan’s Self-Reliance 1991–2010: Public Politics and the Impact of Roles in Shaping Bilateral Relationships” (Ph.D. diss, The University of St Andrews, 2013), 159–76.

16 See Geraldine Fagan, Believing in Russia, 53–65.

17 Atasoy, Mustafa Sungur, 243–53.

18 Fagan, Believing in Russia, 60–116.

19 “Kosturma’da Tarihi Gün,” Barla Platformu, May 5, 2017, at https://barlaplatformu.com/2017/05/05/kosturmada-tarihi-gun (accessed February 4, 2020).

20 Roman Silant΄ev, Soviet muftiev Rossii: Istoriia odnoi fitny (Moscow, 2015).

21 For an early warning about Islamophobia in Europe, see “Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All,” Runnymede Trust, 1997, at https://www.runnymedetrust.org/companies/17/74/Islamophobia-A-Challenge-for-Us-All.html (accessed on February 4, 2020).

22 See Mahmood Mamdani, Good Muslim, Bad Muslim: America, the Cold War, and the Roots of Terror (New York, 2004); and Andrew Shryock, ed., Islamophobia/Islamophilia: Beyond the Politics of Enemy and Friend (Bloomington, 2010), 1–25.

23 For an insightful critique of this magnification effect, see Charles Kurzman, The Missing Martyrs: Why There Are So Few Muslim Terrorists (New York, 2011).

24 For an open letter against the “dystopic characterizations of Islam” by several scholars working on Central Asia, where similar dynamics are under way, see “Understanding Islamic Radicalization in Central Asia,” The Diplomat, January 20, 2017, at https://thediplomat.com/2017/01/understanding-islamic-radicalization-in-central-asia (accessed February 5, 2020). For a broader critique of how states tend to perceive reality in reductive ways, see James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, 1998).

25 Galina M. Yemelianova ed. Radical Islam in the Former Soviet Union (London, 2010).

26 Denis Sokolov, “Russia’s Other Pipeline: Migration and Radicalization in the North Caucasus,” in Kennan Cable, no. 17 (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 2016); republished as Denis Sokolov, “Putin’s Savage War against Russia’s ‘New Muslims,’” Newsweek, 20 August 2016, at https://www.newsweek.com/putin-savage-war-against-russia-new-muslims-490783 (accessed February 4, 2020). Emphasis mine.

27 D.V. Sokolov and I.V. Starodubrovskaia, Istoki konfliktov na Severnom Kavkaze (Moscow, 2015), 78–128, provides a more detailed account of Sokolov’s research.

28 For a survey of Muslim presence in Russia, see Galina M. Yemelianova, Russia and Islam: A Historical Survey (Houndmills, Eng., 2002).

29 Khassan Baiev, The Oath: A Surgeon under Fire, ed. Nicholas Daniloff and Ruth Daniloff (New York, 2003), 1–101.

30 On the Chechen independence movement and its radicalization, see Glen. E. Howard ed. Volatile Borderland: Russia and the North Caucasus (Washington, DC, 2011); Sokolov and Starodubrovskaia, Istoki konfliktov. For an example of this radicalization’s impact on the perception of Muslims in Russia, see Viktor Nikolaevich Kotliarov, ed., Severny΄i Kavkaz pod ten΄iu Vakhkhabizma: O radikal΄nom islame na stranitsakh gazety Severnyi Kavkaz, 1991–2008, 2 vols. (Nal΄chik, 2009).

31 Sergei Abashin, “Migration from Central Asia to Russia in the New Model of World Order,” in Russian Politics and Law 52, no. 6 (2014): 8–23; Andrew Foxall, Ethnic Relations in Post-Soviet Russia: Russians and Non-Russian’s in the North Caucasus (New York, 2015); Sophie Roche, “The Moscow Cathedral Mosque in the Life of Migrants from Central Asia,” from a presentation at George Washington University on February 21, 2017, posted by “Central Asia Program,” February 23, 2017, at https://youtu.be/V3dizJryzyY (accessed February 7, 2020).

32 Field observation in Russia between August 2001 and June 2002; Tuomas Forsberg and Graeme P. Herd, “The EU, Human Rights, and the Russo-Chechen Conflict,” in Political Science Quarterly 120, no. 5 (Fall 2005): 455–78; John Russell, “Terrorists, Bandits, Spooks and Thieves: Russian Demonisation of the Chechens before and since 9/11,” in “The Politics of Naming: Rebels, Terrorists, Criminals, Bandits and Subversives, ” a special issue of Third World Quarterly 26, no. 1 (2005): 101–16; Emma Gilligan, Terror in Chechnya: Russia and the Tragedy of Civilians in War (Princeton, 2010).

33 Roche, “The Moscow Cathedral Mosque.”

34 See, for instance, the claims of the Moscow based Archbishop Dmitrii Smirnov on the subject. “U menia ochen΄ tiazhelaia ruka,” video, posted by Lenta.ru, March 2, 2016, at https://lenta.ru/video/2016/03/02/smirnov (accessed on February 7, 2020); and “Miagkaia islamizatsiia Rossii ili otkuda berutsia ‘dukhovnye skrepy,” IslamNews, January 8, 2017, at https://islamnews.ru/news-515908.html (accessed on February 25, 2020).

35 Interview with Talgat Tadzhuddin by Avgust Iakovlev, “V bor΄be s terrorizmom vazhno ob’’iasniat΄, chto takoe islam i vera,” TASS, November 17, 2016, at https://tass.ru/interviews/3790158 (accessed February 7, 2020).

36 Ibid.

37 “U nas Respublika Tatarstan. Esli ne na tatarskom, to na kakom,” BiznesOnline, August 11, 2016, at http://m.business-gazeta.ru/article/319489 (accessed February 7, 2020).

38 “Pervyi muftii Tatarstana otstupil ot natsional-islama DUM RT,” IslamNews, January 13, 2017, at http://www.islamnews.ru/news-516455.html (accessed February 7, 2020).

39 On this feud, see “Muftii Tatarstana Gusman khazrat Iskhakov ushel v otstavku,” Tatcenter, January 13, 2011, at http://tatcenter.ru/article/95654/ (accessed February 7, 2020); and “Gabdulla Galiullin: ‘Möftigä katı basım bulgan,’” Azatlıq Radiosı, January 14, 2011, at http://www.azatliq.org/a/2276037.html (accessed February 7, 2020).

40 Field observation in Russia between August 2001 and June 2002.

41 See for example, Valiulla M. Iakupov, Neofitsial΄nyi islam ve Tatarstane: Dvizheniia, techeniia, sekty (Kazan, 2003); and Rais Suleimanov, “Religioznoe vliianie islamskikh stran Vostoka na Musul΄man Tatarstana v postsovetskii period,” in Musul’manskii mir 3 (2015): 40–56.

42 See Atasoy, Mustafa Sungur, 234 and 475.

43 See Metin Karabaşoğlu, Saykal: Risale-i Nur’a Husumetin Kısa Tarihi (Istanbul, 2017), especially 19–70; and İsa Talıcan, “Bediüzzaman’ın Talebesinden Gülen’e Son Uyarı,” Sabah, March 17, 2014; “Risaleme Dokunma,” at http://www.risalemedokunma.com (accessed February 10, 2020). For critical comparisons of Nursi’s teachings and the movement that Gülen inspired, see Kâzım Güleçyüz, Cemaat ve İktidar (İstanbul, 2015), 103–19; and “Said Nursi ve Fethullah Gülen Hareketi Arasındaki 17 Fark,” Risale Ajans, December 30, 2013, at https://www.risalehaber.com/risale-i-nur-ile-gulen-hareketi-arasinda-17-fark-var-226416h.htm (accessed February 10, 2020).

44 Ponomarev, “Rossiiskie spetssluzhby,” 15–46.

45 See for instance, Tsentral΄noe Dokhovnoe Upravlenie Musul΄man Rossii, “Zaiavlenie,” No. 595, August 9, 2001; and Gainutdin, “Zakliuchenie.” A larger list of statements prepared to protest the ban on Nursi’s works in 2007, which includes non-Russian as well as Russian citations, can be found at “My za tsivilizovannyi dialog: Nash otvet na zapret ‘Risale-i Nur,” www.Nurru.com, at http://www.nurru.com/modules/news/article.php?storyid=130 (no longer available).

46 “Zaiavlenie,” 9 August 2001.

47 Gainutdin, “Zakliuchenie.”

48 See Fagan, Believing in Russia, 53–171; and Federal Law of the Russian Federation No. 114-FZ, 25 July 2002, “O protivodeistvii ekstremistskoi deiatel΄nosti,” Sobranie zakonodatel΄stva Rossiiskoi Federatsii 30 (July 2002): 7766–74, as subsequently amended. Available online at http://ivo.garant.ru/#/document/12127578:0 (accessed February 10, 2020).

49 Victoria Arnold, “Jehovah’s Witnesses Now Banned,” Forum 18, July 18, 2017, at http://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2297 (accessed February 10, 2020).

50 Fagan, Believing in Russia, 155–58; and Verkhovnyi sud Rossiiskoi Federatsii, “Reshenie,” February 14, 2003, at http://nac.gov.ru/zakonodatelstvo/sudebnye-resheniya/reshenie-verhovnogo-suda-rf-ot-14-fevralya.html (accessed February 10, 2020). For a comprehensive and authoritative study on Hizb ut-Tahrir, see Reza Pankhurst, Hizb ut-Tahrir: The Untold History of the Liberation Party (London, 2016). For a discussion about possibly banning the Muslim Brotherhood in America, see Benjamin Wittes, “Should the Muslim Brotherhood be Designated a Terrorist Organization?,” Lawfare, January 27, 2017, at https://www.lawfareblog.com/should-muslim-brotherhood-be-designated-terrorist-organization (accessed February 10, 2020).

51 See Verkhovnyi sud, “Reshenie.”

52 Geraldine Fagan, “Ban on Hizb ut-Tahrir not to Be Challenged?” Forum 18, April 10, 2006, at http://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=756 (accessed February 10, 2020).

53 Vitalii Ponomarev, interview via email, October 2, 2017.

54 See Geraldine Fagan and Igor Rotar, “Hizb ut-Tahrir Wants Worldwide Sharia Law,” Forum 18, 29 October 2003, at http://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=170 (accessed February 16, 2020); Zeyno Baran, “Hizb ut-Tahrir: Islam’s Political Insurgency,” (Washington, DC: The Nixon Center, December 2004), especially 48–66; Geraldine Fagan, “Division over Hizb ut-Tahrir,” Forum 18, April 10, 2006, at http://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=755 (accessed February 10, 2020); and Emmanuel Karagiannis, Political Islam in Central Asia: The Challenge of Hizb ut-Tahrir” (New York, 2010), 103–20.

55 Tasar, Soviet and Muslim, 300.

56 Dmitrii Dubrovskii, “Prava cheloveka i ugolovnoe pravosudie,” in Zhurnal konstitutsionalizma i prav cheloveka, 3–4, no. 8 (2015): 104–18.

57 See for instance, Slavianskii pravovoi tsentr, “Religiovedcheskaia ekspertiza,” in Religia i pravo 1 (January 2005), at http://www.sclj.ru/analytics/expert/detail.php?ID=1101&print=Y (accessed February 10, 2020). Also see Ponomarev, “Rossiiskie spetssluzhby,” 15–46.

58 Geraldine Fagan, “Said Nursi Ban Brands Moderate Muslims As Extremist,” Forum 18, June 27, 2007, at https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/46827dca2.pdf (accessed February 10, 2020); Vladimir Lukin’s letter to the Koptevo Court (May 8, 2007); and Ponomarev, “Rossiiskie spetssluzhby,” especially 47–57, and 87–152. A complete list of banned works by Nursi can be found at http://minjust.ru/ru/extremist-materials?field_extremist_content_value=Нурси (accessed February 10, 2020).

59 For an explicit statement about the appropriateness of this method for criminal evaluation, see the introduction to an expert opinion submitted to the Koptevo District Court that banned Nursi’s works in 2007. K.I. Alekseev, M.E. Alekseev, N.D. Pavlov, and E.F. Tarasov, “Zakliuchenie kompleksnoi sotsial΄no-psikhologicheskoi i psikholingvisticheskoi ekspertizy po grazhdanskomu delu No: 2–833/06,” Moscow, February 15, 2007.

60 For an analysis of this overall Islamophobic discourse and the contributions of the “experts of Islam” to it, see Kristina Kovalskaya, “Nationalism and Religion in the Discourse of Russia’s ‘Critical Experts of Islam,’” in Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations 28, no. 2 (2017): 141–61.

61 See for instance Bediüzzaman Said Nursî, Şuâlar (Istanbul, 1995), 281–83, and 362.

62 For a compilation of some of these court proceedings and the expert opinions submitted to them, see N.A., Risale-i Nur ve T.C. Mahkemeleri: 785 Beraet Kararı ve Bilirkişi Raporları (Istanbul, 1981); and Gültekin Sarıgül, 12 Eylülden Sonra T.C. Mahkemeleri ve Risale-i Nur (Istanbul, 1989).

63 “İşarat’ül İ’caz Satışa Sunuldu,” Risale Haber, January 12, 2015, at http://www.risalehaber.com/isaratul-icaz-satisa-sunuldu-227295h.htm (accessed February 10, 2020).

64 Victoria Arnold and Geraldine Fagan, “Two ‘Extremism’ Bans Overturned—but Bans, Fines Continue,” Forum 18, January 27, 2014, at http://www.forum18.0rg/archive.php?article_id=1920 (accessed February 10, 2020). The bans on Kuliyev’s translation and the Jehovah’s Witnesses website were eventually overturned in 2013 and 2014, respectively, but the Jehovah’s Witnesses was then banned as an organization in 2017.

65 Fagan, Believing in Russia, especially 155–71 offers a good sense of the absurdity that underlines the overall prosecution of religious extremism in Russia.

66 Marina Vladimirovna Vedishenkova, “Zakliuchenie eksperta po ugolovnomu delu No: 300079,” Kazan΄, September 1, 2005.

67 Alla Vladimirovna Frolova, “Zakliuchenie eksperta po ugolovnomu delu No: 300079,” Kazan, September 1, 2005.

68 See Bediüzzaman Said Nursî, Sözler (Istanbul, 1995), 497–99; Bediüzzaman Said Nursî, Mektûbat (Istanbul, 1995), 249, and 330–31; and Bediüzzaman Said Nursî, Lem’alar (Istanbul, 1995), 272–73.

69 Alekseev, Alekseev, Pavlov, Tarasov, “Zakliuchenie.”

70 Galina Vladimirovna Ivanchenko, and Dmitrii Alekseevich Leont΄ev, “Zakliuchenie metaekspertizy po ekspertnym zakliucheniiam o tekstakh knig Badiuzzamana Saida Nursi,” Moscow, December 29, 2005.

71 See the debate Nathaniel Knight, “Grigor΄ev in Orenburg, 1851–1862: Russian Orientalism in the Service of Empire?,” in Slavic Review, 59, no. 1 (2000): 74–100; Adeeb Khalid, “Russian History and the Debate over Orientalism,” in Kritika: Explorations in Russian & Eurasian History 1, no. 4 (Fall 2000): 691–99; and Nathaniel Knight, “On Russian Orientalism: A Response to Adeeb Khalid,” in Kritika: Explorations in Russian & Eurasian History 1, no. 4 (Fall 2000): 701–15. Also see David Schimmelpenninck van der Oye, “Mirza Kazem Bek and the Kazan-School of Russian Orientology,” in Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa, and the Middle East 28, no. 3 (December 2008): 443–58; and David Schimmelpenninck van der Oye, Russian Orientalism: Asia in the Russian Mind from Peter the Great to the Emigration (New Haven, 2010).

72 A public debate among five scholars working on Islam in Russian academic institutions illustrates this point well. See “Chetki: Kto ty islamoved?” (Kazan΄, 2012), at https://old.universmotri.ru/teleproekty/programmy/чётки/item/67-чётки-кто-ты,-исламовед-часть-1.html (accessed February 25, 2020).

73 See for instance, Peris, Daniel, Storming the Heavens: The Soviet League of the Militant Godless (Ithaca, 1998)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; on the political abuse of psychiatry, Dan Healey, “Russian and Soviet Forensic Psychiatry: Troubled and Troubling,” in International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 37, no. 1 (January-February 2014): 71–81; and Robert van Voren, On Dissidents and Madness: From The Soviet Union of Leonid Brezhnev to the Soviet Union of Vladimir Putin (Amsterdam, 2009).

74 “Memorial΄naia mechet΄ v Kostrome.”

75 D. V. Makarov, Dorogami islama tsentral’noi Rossii (Moscow, 2012), 96–97.

76 In a video from 1999, Mustafa Sungur and Necip Dinç discuss the mosque project in a gathering of Nursi’s followers: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jW5IfrSA4BY (no longer available); and “Kostromskaia mechet΄,” posted by antonkostroma, at https://golos.io/mapala/@antonkostroma/kostromskaya-mechet (accessed February 10, 2020).

77 “Mechet΄ v Kostrome: Byt΄ ili ne byt΄,” Religare, November 10, 2004, at http://www.religare.ru/2_11719.html (accessed February 10, 2020); Online Discussion Forum on the Kostroma Mosque, 2007, at http://skovorodka.org/topic2918-mechet-v-kostrome.html (accessed February 10, 2020).

78 “Online Discussion Forum”; “V Kostrome vosobnovleno stroitel΄stvo mecheti,” Musul΄mane Rossii, April 19, 2013, at http://dumrf.ru/common/interview/6703 (accessed February 10, 2020); “Musul΄manam v Kostrome ne dali dostroit΄ mechet΄,” 7x7, June 5, 2015, at https://www.7x7-journal.com/item/62245 (accessed February 10, 2020); and “Kostromskaia mechet΄.”

79 “Musul΄manam v Kostrome ne dali.”

80 “Otzyv: Sobornaia mechet΄ (Rossiia, Kostroma)—Velichestvennoe zdanie v samom tsentre patriarkhal΄noi Kostromy,” posted by aosher, Otzovik, November 29, 2016, at http://otzovik.com/review_4138671.html (accessed February 10, 2020).

81 “Putin, Erdogan Hail Return to ‘Normal Partner’ Relations,” Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, May 3, 2017, at https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-turkey-putin-erdogan-meeting-sochi/28465509.html (accessed February 10, 2020).

82 See “Keşke Adı Bediüzzaman Camii Olsaydı,” Yeni Asya, May 18, 2017, at http://www.yeniasya.com.tr/gundem/keske-adi-bediuzzaman-camii-olsaydi_432485 (accessed February 10, 2020).

83 Victoria Arnold, “Third 2018 Conviction for Muslim Study Meetings,” Forum 18, August 21, 2018, at http://www.forum18.0rg/archive.php?article_id=2406&layout_type=mobile (accessed February 10, 2020).