1. Munir Sendich, “The Life and Works of Karolina Pavlova” (Ph.D. Diss., New York University, 1968), 221—51; Elisaveta Vasil'eva [Cherubina de Gabriak], “Dve veshchi v mire dlia menia vsegda byli samymi sviatymi: stikhi i liubov',” Novyi mir, no. 12 (December 1988): 139; Heldt, Barbara, Terrible Perfection: Women and Russian Literature (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 118–19Google Scholar; Anna Akhmatova's tribute to Pavlova, , “Nashe sviashchennoe remeslo,” Sochineniia v dvukh tomakh (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1986), I: 195 Google Scholar; Kovarskii, N, “Karolina Pavlova” in Polnoe sobranie stikhotvorenii by Pavlova, Karolina (Leningrad: Sovetskii'pisatel', 1939), iii–xxvi Google Scholar; Gromov, Pavel, “Karolina Pavlova,” in Polnoe sobranie stikhotvorenii by Pavlova, Karolina (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel', 1964), lxxii Google Scholar; Friedberg, Maurice, Russian Classics in Soviet Jackets (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962), 83 Google Scholar. More positive Soviet scholarship on Pavlova includes Reshetlova, Irina, “Kniagina russkogo stikha,” Chistye prudy: al'manakh (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1989), 674–713Google Scholar; Lebedev, N, “Poznan'ia rokovaia chasha (Lirika Karoliny Pavlovoi) in Stikhotvorenie, by Pavlova, Karolina (Moscow: Sovetskaia Rossiia, 1985), 5–38 Google Scholar; Zontikov, V.K. ‘ “Pishu ne smelo ia, ne chasto…’ (Stikhotvorenie Karoliny Pavlovoi),” Vstrechi sproshlym: sbornik materialov TsGALI, vypusk 4 (Moscow: Sovetskaia Rossiia, 1982), 35–39 Google Scholar. In western scholarship, see Munir Sendich's groundbreaking dissertation and excellent series of articles about Pavlova. For studies of Pavlova from a feminist critical perspective, see Heldt, Barbara, “Karolina Pavlova: The Woman Poet and the Double Life,” in A Double Life, by Pavlova, Karolina (Oakland: Barbary Coast Books, 1986), i–xxii Google Scholar; idem., Terrible Perfection, 111–15; Kelly, Catriona, A History of Russian Women's Writing 1820–1992 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994); 93–107 Google Scholar; and my “Karolina Pavlova's Tri dushi': The Transfiguration of Biography,” Proceedings of the Kentucky Foreign Language Conference 11: 1 (1984), 15–24; “Karolina Pavlova's ‘At the Tea Table’ and the Politics of Class and Gender,” Russian Review 53, no. 2 (1994): 271–84; and “Nineteenth-Century Women Poets: Critical Reception vs. Self-Definition,” in Women Writers in Russian Literature, eds. Toby Clyman and Diana Greene (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1994), 104–6.

2. On romanticism in Russia, see Leighton, Lauren G., “Romanticism,” Handbook of Russian Literature, ed. Terras, Victor (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985 Google Scholar; examples of mixed genres include Pushkin's novel in verse, Evgenii Onegin; GogoP's poema in prose, Mertvye dushi; and Lermontov's “Princess Ligovskaia” combining the physiological sketch, the poor clerk tale and the svetskaia povesV (see Goscilo, Helena, “The First Pecorin en Route to A Hero: Lermontov's Princess Ligovskaja,” Russian Literature xi [1982]: 129–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar).

3. Karolina Pavlova, Polnoe sobranie stikhotvorenii (1964), 232. Subsequent citations of this edition will appear in parentheses in the text. All translations are mine unless otherwise stated.

4. Kelly, A History of Russian Women's Writing 93–94. Schulze had been in love with a woman named Cacilie who died young. The dream scenes of Pavlova's work, however, in which Cecilia is restored to her true self, echo Schulze's epilog in which Cacilie appears to the author in a dream and takes him to a far-off land. Pavlova reverses the genders of transported dreamer and spiritual guide but, like Schulze, describes her dream world with images of spaciousness, starlight on water and a rising moon (see Bouterwek, “Biographische vorrede” in Cacilie: Ein Romantisches gedicht in zwanzig Gesangen, by Ernest Konrad Schulze [Reutlingen: Macken, 1826] I: xix; Schulze, Ernest Konrad, “An Cacilie,” in Cacilie II: 532, 536Google Scholar. My thanks to Walter von Reinhart for help with Schulze).

5. Sendich (229–31) discusses the positive reception that greeted Dvoinaia zhizn’ and quotes Aksakov's unsigned introduction; Valerii Briusov, in an introductory essay to his edition of Pavlova's work, identifies Aksakov as the author of the introduction (Briusov, “Materialy dlia biografii Karoliny Pavlovoi,” in Sobranie sochinenii, by Karolina Pavlova [Moscow: K.F. Nekrasov, 1915], xxxi-xxxii).

6. For example, Pavel Gromov, “Karolina Pavlova,” in Polnoe sobranie stikhotvorenii by Karolina Pavlova (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel', 1964), 31, and Sendich, 97, n. 30, 233-34. Sendich also cites Aleksandr Vel'tman's novels Strannik and Aleksandr Filippovich Makedonskii, as well as Pushkin's unfinished fragment “Egipetskie nochi” (105).

7. Sendich, 104–5.

8. To a large extent Schiller personified German romanticism in Russia. Pavlova, who herself translated Schiller's Die Jungfrau from German to French (1833), would have known Schiller's work both in German and through Zhukovskii's many translations (Edmund Kostka, Schiller in Russian Literature [Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1965], 14–16. “Lied von der Glocke” has been called “the greatest of [Schiller's] lyrics” (Sir Lytton, Edward Bulwer, “A Brief Sketch of the Life of Schiller,” Poems of Schiller [Liepzig: Tauchnitz, 1844], lxxi Google Scholar). The bell, raised aloft to the stars at the end of the poem, can be seen as a metaphor for the poet, an image Pavlova may have meant to contrast with the materialism of Cecilia's surroundings. (I am indebted to Olga Zaslavsky for this observation.)

9. There is a third poetic interpolation in the Briusov (1915) edition of Dvoinaia zhizn'. In chap. 4, as Cecilia prepares for bed on the day Dmitrii first shows interest in her, the nightwatchman sings a folksong about a woman betrayed by her lover, a warning that is repeated more directly in Cecilia's dream that follows. Because of a transposed paragraph in the 1964 edition, the nightwatchman's song appears as the beginning of Cecilia's dream.

10. Strelka, Joseph, ed, Theories of Literary Genre (University Park: Penn State University Press, 1978), viii Google Scholar; Fowler, Alastair, Kinds of Literature: An Introduction to the Theory of Genre and Modes (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982), 256, 38 Google Scholar; see also Gerhart, Mary, Genre Choices, Gender Questions (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992), 121, 124Google Scholar; E.D. Hirsch: “There can be no meaning without genre,” quoted in Gerhart, Genre Choices, Gender Questions, 16.

11. Jameson, Fredric, The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1981), 106 Google Scholar; Cranny-Francis, Anne Feminist Fiction: Feminist Uses of Generic Fiction (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990), 17, 18 Google Scholar. On “ideological” genre criticism, see Gerhart, 108–15 and William Levi, “Literature and the Imagination: A Theory of Genres,” in Strelka, 18–19.

12. See Fetterley, Judith, The Resisting Reader: A Feminist Approach to American Fiction (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1978 Google Scholar; Millet, Kate, Sexual Politics (Garden City: Doubleday, 1970 Google Scholar; Teresa De Laurentis Alice Doesn't: Feminism, Semiotics, Cinema (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984 Google Scholar, Baldwin, James, Nobody Knows My Name: More Notes of a Native Son (London: Corgi, 1965), 71 Google Scholar; Walker, Alice, In Search of Our Mother's Gardens: Womanist Prose (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1983), 3–14.Google Scholar

13. Mellor, Anne, Romaticism & Gender (New York: Routledge, 1988 Google Scholar; Tuchman, Gaye with Fortin, Nina E., Edging Women Out: Victorian Novels, Publishers and Social Change (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), 1 Google Scholar; Baym, Nina, Women's Fiction: A Guide to Novels By and About Women in America, 1820–1870 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), 14 Google Scholar. See also Spender, Dale, Mothers of the Novel: 100 Good Women Writers before Jane Austen (New York: Pandora, 1986 Google Scholar; Tompkins, Jane, Sensational Designs: The Cultural Work of American Fiction 1790–1880 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985 Google Scholar; Baym, Nina, “Melodramas of Beset Manhood: How Theories of American Fiction Exclude Women Authors,” American Quarterly 33 (1981): 123–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

14. Pavlova dedicates the work “To you…slaves of noise and vanities Psyches, deprived of wings, the mute sisters of my soul” (231). Several critics and writers have discussed the difficulty of telling women's stories in traditional male genres, e.g., Russ, Joanna, “What Can a Heroine Do? Or Why Women Can't Write,” Images of Women in Fiction: Feminist Perspectives, ed. Cornillon, Susan Koppelman (Bowling Green: Bowling Green University Press, 1972), 3–22 Google Scholar; and De Laurentis.

15. On the svetskaia povest', see Terras, 431, 411; Iezuitova, R.V., “Puti razvitiia romanticheskoi povesti,” Russkaia povest’ XIX veka: Istoriia i problematika zhanra, ed. Meilakh, B.S. (Leningrad: Nauka, 1973), 53–76 Google Scholar; Elizabeth Shepard, “The Society Tale and the Innovative Argument in Russian Prose Fiction of the 1830s,” Russian Literature x (1981): 111–62; Olga Samilenko Tsvetkov, “Aspects of the Russian Society Tale of the 1830s” (Ph.D. Diss. University of Michigan, 1984).

16. For example, while in men's stories duels and consummated sexual liaisons figured prominently (Marlinskii's “Fregat Nadezhda,” Odoevsky's “Kniazhna Mimi” Lermontov's “Kniazhna Meri ”), in women's stories duels were less common and female characters usually saved themselves or were saved from acting on illicit sexual attraction (Gan's “Ideal” and “Sud sveta,” Zhukova's “Padaiushchaia zvezda” and “Dacha na Petergofskoi doroge ”). While both men's and women's svetskie povesti protested against the limited options available to upper-class women, those written by men more often included detailed descriptions of the humiliation, destruction and/or death of an innocent woman, even while the narrator deplored the situation (Odoevskii's “Kniazhna Mimi” and “Kniazhna Zizi,” Marlinskii's “Fregat Nadezhda,” Senkovskii's “Vsia zhenskaia zhizn’ v neskol'ko chasov ”).

17. Other lines from Byron's poem echo in Dvoinaia zhizn': “ They [dreams] leave a weight upon our waking thoughts /They do divide our being (11. 7, 9)” describes Cecilia's oppressive half-memory of her dream on her wedding day. Indeed, an ill-fated wedding occurs in Byron's work; during his wedding ceremony the narrator is thinking of another woman whom he loves. Byron, Lord, The Complete Poetical Works [Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986], iv: 22–29)Google Scholar.

18. See Donald Fanger for discussions of the importance of “the typical” in the development of Russian realism and the influence of the physiologic sketch on Dostoevskii's feuilletons and on Gogol “s work in Dostoevsky and Romantic Realism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1965), 8, 135–37, 144–151; and idem., The Creation of Nikolai Gogol (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1979), 112. See also Victor Terras, ed, Handbook of Russian Literature (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), 136–37, 337–38. In Tynianov's evolutionary terms, “the typical” became a “literary fact” in the 1830s and moved to the center of literature “from the periphery” ( Tynianov, Iurii, Arkhaisty i novatory [Leningrad: Priboi, 1929], 9, 5–48 Google Scholar).

19. In 1845 and 1846 N.A. Nekrasov, editor of the politically liberal Sovremennik, compiled and edited two volumes of ocherki. Belinskii not only contributed two sketches to the collection, along with other members of the Natural School (Grigorovich, Dal', Sollogub, Turgenev, Nekrasov, Panaev) but he also wrote an introduction-manifesto to the first volume (Fiziologiia Peterburga, 1845) and praised the collection in his “Obzor russkoi literatury za 1845 g.” On the fiziologicheskii ocherk, see B. Kostelianets, “Russkii ocherk,” in Russkie ocherki (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo khudozhestvennoi literatury, 1956), v-lxxx; Kuleshov, V. I., NaturaVnaia shkola v russkoi literature XIX veka (Moscow: Prosveshchenie, 1982 Google Scholar; idem., Russkii ocherk 40–50e gody XIX veka (Moscow: MGU, 1986); lakimovich, T. K., Frantsuzskii realisticheskii ocherk 1830–1848 gg (Moscow: Akademiia nauk, 1963 Google Scholar.

20. Kostelianets, Russkie ocherki.

21. Kuleshov, Russkii ocherk 40–50egody XIX veka. A second sketch in this collection, “Baryshnia,” although signed Kniazhna—a, is attributed to a man (see Okhtin, N.G. and Sternin, Iu, eds., Nashi, spisannye s natury russkimi [Moscow: Kniga, 1986], II: 75–76, 93–94Google Scholar).

22. “Baryshnia,” 37–41; “Niania,” 61–69; “Zhenshchiny” 114–17; “Svakha,” 371–76; “Kukharka,” 510–21.

23. Kuleshov, NaturaVnaia shkola, 94.

24. Rostopchina published her two svetskaia povesti under the pseudonym Iasnovidiashchaia (She Who Sees Clearly; “Predislovie,” Ocherki bol'shogo sveta [St. Petersburg: Neiman: 1839], iii-iv). It is very possible, however, that by 1845 when Pavlova started work on Dvoinaia zhizn’ she was aware of Rostopchina's authorship. The two poets, both of whom hosted important salons, occasionally sparred over politics: Rostopchina at this time was identified with St. Petersburg and the Westernizers while Pavlova was identified with Moscow and the Slavophiles (see Rostopchina's “Pesnia po povodu perepiska uchenogo muzha s ne menee uchenoi zhenoiu,” [1845], in Stikhotvoreniia, proza, pis'ma [Moscow: Sovetskaia Rossiia, 1986], 372–73; and Pavlova's “Grafine Rostopchinoi” and “My sovremennitsy, grafinia” in Polnoe sobranie stikhotvorenii [Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel', 1964], 103, 134). It is tempting to see a parody of Rostopchina in the woman in chap. 1 of Dvoinaia zhizn’ who dresses too young for her age and expresses her dislike for Moscow (234).

25. Ross, Marlon, The Contours of Masculine Desire: Romanticism and the Rise of Women's Poetry (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 22, 26.Google Scholar

26. Belkina, 531, 532, 533–34. From the time of the revolution until the end of the Soviet period, Soviet literary critics followed Belinskii's lead in privileging ocherki and poor clerk tales as “progressive” genres and marginalizing the svetskaia povest’ as decadent and frivolous. See, for example, M.A. Belkina, “Svetskaia povest’ 30kh godov i ‘Kniaginia Ligovskaia Lermontova, “’ Zhizn’ i tvorchestva M. Iu Lermontova, ed. N.L. Brodskii et al. (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1941), 516–51; Belkina 516–17, 531–34; Kostelianets, Iakimovich, 15–78; Pospelov, G. N., Istoriia russkoi literatury XIX veka: 1840–1860-e gody (Moscow: Vysshaia shkola, 1981), 18, 73 Google Scholar; Meilakh, B, “Vstupitel'naia stat'ia,” Russkie povesti XIX veka 40–50kh godov (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1952), xi–xv Google Scholar. Toward the end of the Soviet period more favorable evaluations of svetskie povesti and the women writing them appeared, e.g. Iezuitova, 172–73.

27. Fowler, 98.

28. In her short story “Za chainym stolom” (first published in 1857 but probably conceived in the 1830s), Pavlova has one character, a countess, describe in detail the problems with the upbringing of women in society, including the lack of other options besides marriage (“Za chainym stolom,” Russkii vestnik 24, book 2 [December 1859], 799).

29. Although this German genre was not popular in Russia during the 1840s, Pavlova—half-German like her heroine, Cecilia—was steeped in German literature. Her first publication, Das Nordlicht (1833, Dresden), consisted of translations of Russian poetry into German along with some of her own German poems. Pavlova spent the last forty years of her life in Dresden where she translated several plays of A.K. Tolstoi into German.

30. As recently as 1978 a critic described the subject of the Bildungsroman as “the growth and change of a young man through adolescence” ( Swales, Martin, The German Bildungsroman: From Wiedland to Hesse [Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978], 116 Google Scholar). For scholarship on the female Bildungsroman (a recent phenomenon) see Abel, Elizabeth, Hirsch, Marianne, and Langland, Elizabeth, eds., The Voyage In: Fictions of Female Development (Hanover: University Press of New England, 1983)Google Scholar; Fuderer, Laura Sue, The Female Bildungsroman in English: An Annotated Bibliography of Criticism (New York: MLA, 1990).Google Scholar

31. Novalis's Bildungsroman is meant to be mythic rather than realistic. Its scaffolding, however—Heinrich's initiation as a poet and his relations with women— reflects quite realistically the opportunities for men (as opposed to women) in his society.

32. I base the following remarks on Jeannine Blackwell, “Bildungsroman mit Dame” (Ph.D. Diss., Indiana University, 1982); and Pratt, Annis, Archetypal Patterns in Women's Fiction (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981 Google Scholar).

33. Pratt refers to the common elements in nineteenth-and twentieth-century novels of women's development as “archetypes.” Elaine Showalter discusses some very broad cross-cultural and cross-temporal commonalities in women's experience in “Toward a Feminist Poetics,” in The New Feminist Criticism, ed. Elaine Showalter (New York: Pantheon, 1985), 125–43.

34. Blackwell 19, 82, 104, 409, 417, 441, 423, 437.

35. Annis Pratt, Archetypal Patterns, 30. Subsequent citations appear on 13–37.

36. The identity of Cecilia's mysterious and unnamed dream companion invites speculation. A.I. Beletskii argues that Pushkin can be seen as a prototype for the figure who represents the spirit of poetry and inspiration denied Cecilia in her waking life (see Sendich 102 n. 43). Pavlova gives us very little information: in the first chapter Cecilia overhears some of the visitors to her mother's salon discussing an unnamed man who has just died that morning. One describes him as not so young but very good looking, spiteful but clever, another as unbearable and angry-looking. That night in her first dream Cecilia meets her dream companion and the next day she tells Ol'ga that she dreamed of the man who died (232–33, 240).

37. The pattern of male relationship to nature and the opposite sex in nineteenthcentury American fiction is quite different (see Nina Baym's “Melodramas of Beset Manhood: How Theories of American Fiction Exclude Women Authors,” American Quarterly 33 (1981): 123–39).

38. Nabokov, Vladimir, “Translator's Introduction,” Eugene Onegin: A Novel in Verse by Aleksandr Pushkin (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1964), 1: 6.Google Scholar

39. See Jane Taubman's discussion of the significance of marked feminine endings in Russian poetry and some Russian women poets’ attempts to avoid them ( “Women's Silver Age Poetry,” Russian Women Writers, 172, 176, 179). See also Svelana Boym's discussion of the connotations of the word “poetess” in Death in Quotation Marks: Cultural Myths of the Modern Poet (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991), 192–200.

40. While, of course, no “official” canon of Russian literature exists, one may infer which literary works are considered central from those chosen as topics of literary criticism and research, mentioned in literary histories, included in anthologies and appearing on course reading lists.

41. Although Belinskii died in 1848, the year that Dvoinaia zhizn’ was first published in its entirety, excerpts of the work had appeared in 1845 in Moskvitianin and in 1847 in Moskovskii literaturnyi i uchenyi sbornik to positive reviews by all the major journals. In his History of Russian Literature Mirskii discussed Pavlova as a poet but made no mention of Dvoinaia zhizn'. (D.S. Mirsky, A History of Russian Literature From Its Beginnings to 1900, ed. Francis J. Whitfield [New York: Vintage, 1958], 128.

42. For example, see Anthony Briggs, “Twofold Life: A Mirror of Karolina Pavlova's Shortcomings and Achievement,” Slavonic and East European Review xlix, no. 114 (January 1971): 1–17 for a condescending and frustrated analysis of Dvoinaia zhizn’ in which he imputes to both Pavlova and her work a “wholehearted femininity” which includes “the propensity to infuriate” (141).

43. Schweickart, Patrocinio, “Toward a Femininist Theory of Reading,” Gender and Reading: Essays on Readers, Texts, Contexts, eds. Flynn, Elizabeth and Schweickart, Patrocinio (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), 45.Google Scholar

44. For example, Jane|Tompkins, Sensational Designs; Lauter, Paul, Canons and Contexts (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991 Google Scholar; Anne Mellor, Romanticism and Gender.

45. See Barbara Heldt's survey of the field of Russian women's studies, “Feminism and the Slavic Field,” The Harriman Review (November 1994): 11–18 and her pioneering work on Russian women writers, especially Pavlova. A particularly significant recent contribution to the field is The Dictionary of Russian Women Writers, Marina Ledkovsky, Charlotte Rosenthal, and Mary Zirin, eds. (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1994).