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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 24 December 2009
This article is about John Cassian and Prosper of Aquitaine's understanding of grace and free will as put forward during the initial phase of the Western Church's struggle to define the doctrine of grace in the wake of the Pelagian controversy. Although both figured prominently in this struggle, both Cassian and Prosper's later understandings of grace and free will, which appreciated the diverse expressions of grace, failed to have any influence on the terms of the debate set forth in the Pelagian controversy. The history of the debate on grace and free will followed the mutually exclusive model in which salvation was the result of either grace or free will. Cassian and Prosper, who both offered an alternative to the mutually exclusive model, have not been fully recognised for their innovative views.
1 For studies on Prosper, see Valentin, L., Saint Prosper d'Aquitaine: Étude sur la littérature latine ecclésiastique au cinquième siècle en Gaule (Paris: Picard,1900)Google Scholar; Pelland, Lionello, S. Prosperi Aquitani doctrina de predestinatione et voluntate Dei salvifica (Montreal: Studia Collegii Maximi Immaculatae Conceptionis, 1936)Google Scholar; Elberti, Arturo, Prospero d'Aquitania: Teologo e Discepolo (Rome: Edizioni Dehoniane, 1999)Google Scholar; and McHugh, Michael P., ‘Prosper of Aquitaine’, in Fitzgerald, Allan D. (ed.), Augustine through the Ages: An Encyclopedia (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1999), pp. 685–6Google Scholar. For studies on Cassian, see Chadwick, Owen, John Cassian: A Study in Primitive Monasticism, 2nd edn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968)Google Scholar and Stewart, Columba, Cassian the Monk (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998)Google Scholar.
2 The traditional term to designate the conflict, semi-Pelagian, has long been acknowledged as a misnomer. The origin of this term is treated in Jacquin, M., ‘A quelle date apparaît le terme “semipélagien”?’, Revue des sciences philosophiques et theologiques 1 (1907), pp. 506–8Google Scholar. See also Ogliari, D., Gratia et Certamen: The Relationship between Grace and Free Will in the Discussion of Augustine with the So-Called Semipelagians (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2003), pp. 5–7Google Scholar; and Conrad Leyser, ‘Semi-Pelagianism’, Augustine through the Ages, pp. 761–2. The designation of the ‘Augustinian controversy’ more accurately reflects the facts of the conflict. It was over Augustine's doctrine of grace and not the views expressed by the ascetics of Provence.
3 Augustine's doctrine aroused controversy, and there were several levels of reaction, not one unified voice of opposition as has been traditionally maintained. There were some who zealously admired and defended Augustine and his doctrine, some who became convinced in the course of discussions, and then there were those opposed to the doctrine. This last group was the largest and consisted of three varying levels of opposition: those adamant in their opposition, those who simply followed the opinions of the powerful and respected ascetics, and those who raised objections, but wished to remain silent on what is a mystery. See Prosper, Ep. ad Rufinum, Patrologia Latina (PL) 51:79; Prosper, Ep. 225.2–4, Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum (CSEL) 57:456, 459, 460; Hilary, Ep. 226.8, CSEL 57:478. Thus, Cassian was not the spokesperson or the leader of the ‘Massilian or ‘South-Gallic’ monastic opposition to Augustine's doctrine of predestination. Instead, Cassian was one of the many distinct, dissenting voices. Cassian's role in the Augustinian conflict has been greatly exaggerated due to his fame and the convenience afforded by his body of works, which present the most comprehensive treatment on grace among Augustine's opponents in the Augustinian conflict. From these writings, scholars, working on the false assumption of a cohesive south Gallic monasticism, have inaccurately presented Cassian as the representative and main opponent of Augustine's doctrine of grace.
4 The tradition of identifying Cassian's monastery with St Victor abbey goes back only to the eleventh century, based on the claims of the abbey during a time of restoring the order. See Michel Fixot, ‘Saint-Victor, saint Victor, à propos d'un livre récent’, in Marseille: Trames et paysages urbains de Gyptis au Roi René. Actes du colloque de Marseille 1999 (Études Massaliètes 7; Aix-en-Provence: Centre Camille Jullian, 2001), pp. 235–54. My thanks to Dr Simon Loseby of Oxford who kindly brought the article and issue to my attention.
5 Conlationes, CSEL 13; The Conferences, trans. Boniface Ramsey (Ancient Christian Writers, 57; New York: Paulist Press, 1997); De institutis coenobiorum, CSEL 17; The Institutes, trans. Boniface Ramsey (Ancient Christian Writers, 58; New York: Newman Press, 2000).
6 Conlationes 1.15.3, CSEL 13:25–6; as quoted in Stewart, Cassian, p. 47.
7 On the dating of the works, see Ogliari, Gratia et certamen, pp. 125–6, n. 155.
8 Insititutis 12.10, CSEL 17:213; Institutes, p. 259.
9 Insititutis 12.14.2, CSEL 17:215; Institutes, p. 261.
10 Insititutis 12.18, CSEL 17:219; Institutes, pp. 264–5: ‘The daily exercise of his providence – namely, that he frees us from the snares of our adversaries, that he works (cooperatur) with us in order that we may be able to overcome the vices of the flesh, that he protects us from dangers even unbeknownst to us, that he guards us from falling into sin, that helps and enlightens us.’
11 Insititutis 12.18, CSEL 17:219–20; Institutes, p. 265.
12 On the re-evaluation of Cassian's relationship to Augustine, which presents Cassian as a discriminating student of Augustine, see Ramsey, Boniface, ‘John Cassian: Student of Augustine’, Cistercian Studies Quarterly 28 (1993), pp. 5–15Google Scholar.
13 ‘[Cassian's] allusions [in the De institutis] to other perspectives indicate that he was aware of the hardline views of the Augustinian party’ (Stewart, Cassian, p. 79).
14 De correptione et gratia, CSEL 92:219–80; De praedestinatione sanctorum, PL 44:959–92.
15 For the various views, see Olgiari, Certamen et gratia, pp. 133–4, nn. 196–7.
16 Stewart, Cassian, p. 20.
17 Adalbert de Vogüé, ‘Understanding Cassian: A Survey of the Conferences’, Cistercian Studies Quarterly 19 (1984), pp. 101–21.
18 Stewart, Cassian, p. 78. See also Macqueen, D. J., ‘John Cassian on Grace and Free Will’, Recherches de théologie ancienne et médiévale 44 (1977), pp. 5–28Google Scholar.
19 Conlatio 13.3.5, CSEL 13:364; Conferences, p. 468.
20 Conlatio 13.3.6, CSEL 13:364–5; Conferences, p. 469.
21 Conlatio 13.12.7, CSEL 13:380; Conferences, pp. 479–80.
22 Conlatio 13.12.7, CSEL 13:380–1, Conferences, p. 480: ‘In hominis vero optione consistere, ut eligat quem sequatur’. Cf. Shepherd of Hermas, Mandate 6.2, ed. and trans. J. B. Lightfoot in The Apostolic Fathers (London: Macmillan & Co., repr. 1893), pp. 428–9.
23 Conlatio 13.12.8, CSEL 13:380–1, Conferences, p. 480: ‘Et idicirco manet in homine liberum semper arbitrium, quod gratiam dei possit vel neglegere vel amare’.
24 Conlatio 13.18.3–4, CSEL 13:395, Conferences, p. 490.
25 Conlatio 13.13.4–5, CSEL 13:384, Conferences, p. 482.
26 Conlatio 13.9.1, CSEL 13:372; Conferences, p. 474.
27 Conlatio 13.9.2, CSEL 13:372–3, Conferences, pp. 474–5. Cf. Isa. 1:19 and Rom. 9:16; Rom. 2:6 and Phil. 2:13, Eph. 2:8–9; James 4:8 and John 4:44; Prov. 4:26 (LXX) and Ps. 5:9, 16.5; Ezek. 18:31 and 1:19–20; Jer. 4:14 and Ps. 50:12, 9; Hos. 10:12 (LXX) and Ps. 93:10, 145:8, 12:4.
28 Conlatio 13.9.5, CSEL 13:374, Conferences, p. 475: ‘Ut autem evidentius clareat etiam per naturae bonum, quod beneficio creatoris indultum est, nonnumquam bonarum voluntatum prodire principia, quae tamen nisi a domino dirigantur ad consummationem virtutum pervenire non possunt.’
29 Conlatio 13.15.2, CSEL 13:389, Conferences, p. 486: ‘Cornelio precibus et elemosynis iugiter insistenti velut remunerationis vice via salutis ostenditur.’ Note here that Cassian asserts that salvation can be a reward for prayer and almsgiving. This contradicts what Cassian asserted in 13.3.2, CSEL 13:363, Conferences, p. 468: ‘Yet human pride should never strive . . . nor should it try to make itself a sharer in the gifts of God in such a way as to think that its own efforts have brought upon it the divine generosity, boasting that its own deserving toil has been responded to with an abundant harvest.’
30 Conlatio 13.15.2, CSEL 13:389; Conferences, p. 486: ‘Et ita multiformis illa sapientia dei salutem hominum multiplici atque inscrutabili pietate dispensat ac secundum capacitatem uniuscuiusque gratiam suae largitatis inpertit, ut ipsas quoque curationes non secundum uniformem maiestatis suae potentiam, sed secundum mensuram fidei, in qua unumquemque repperit vel sicut unicuique ipse partitus est.’
31 Conlatio 13.15.3–5, CSEL 13:389–90, Conferences, pp. 486–7.
32 Conlatio 13.17.1, CSEL 13:392–3, Conferences, 488–9: ‘Quorundam quidem volentium ac sitientium cursum ad maiorem incitare flagrantiam, quosdam vero etiam nolentes inuitosque conpellere, et nunc quidem ut inpleantur ea quae utiliter a nobis desiderata perspexerit adiuvare, nunc vero etiam ipsius sancti desiderii inspirare principia et vel initium boni operas vel perseverantiam condonare.’
33 Conlatio 13.11.1, CSEL 13:376, Conferences, p. 476.
34 Conlatio 13.11.4, CSEL 13:377, Conferences, pp. 477–8.
35 Conlatio 13.18.5, CSEL 13:396, Conferences, p. 490.
36 De gratia Dei et libero arbitrio liber contra collatorem, PL 51:213–76; On Grace and Free Will, Against Cassian the Lecturer, in Defense of St. Augustine, trans. P. De Letter (Ancient Christian Writers 32; Westminster, MD: Newman Press, 1963), pp. 70–138.
37 Contra collatorem 3.1, PL 51:221, Against Cassian, p. 76: ‘Tu informe nescio quid tertium’.
38 Contra collatorem 5.2, PL 51:226, Against Cassian, p. 81.
39 Contra collatorem 3.1, PL 51: 222–3, Against Cassian, p. 77. Cf. Conlatio 13.11.1, CSEL 13:376, Conferences, p. 476.
40 Contra collatorem 18.2, PL 51:263, Against Cassian, p. 124.
41 Contra collatorem 18.2, PL 51:264, Against Cassian, p. 125.
42 Casiday, Augustine, ‘Rehabilitating John Cassian: An Evaluation of Prosper of Aquitaine's Polemic Against the “Semipelagians”’, Scottish Journal of Theology 58/3 (2005), pp. 270–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
43 De vocatione omnium gentium, PL 51:647–722, The Call of All Nations, trans. P. De Letter (Ancient Christian Writers 14; Westminster, MD: Newman Press, 1952).
44 De vocatione 1.1, PL 51:649, Call of All Nations, p. 26: ‘exercens atque discutiens modulum facultatis meae in his quae cordi meo sobrie (quantum arbitor) inhaeserunt; ut si in eas regulas processerit stylus quae nihil offensionis, nihil habeant pravitatis’.
45 De vocatione 2.31, PL 51:716; Call of All Nations, p. 144. Cf. 2.15, PL 51:700, Call of All Nations, p. 114: ‘Adhibita enim semper est universis hominibus quaedam supernae mensura doctrina quae, etsi parcioris occultiorisque gratiae fuit, sufficit tamen, sicut Dominus judicavit, quibusdam ad remedium, omnibus ad testimonium.’
46 De vocatione 1.6, 7, PL 51:652, 653–4, Call of All Nations, pp. 32, 33.
47 De vocatione 2.25, PL 51:711, Call of All Nations, p. 133: ‘Fuerunt enim ac sunt hujusmodi dona ita generali, ut ipsorum testimonio ad quaerendum verum Deum possent homines adjuvari.’
48 De vocatione 2.19, 29, PL 51:706, 715, Call of All Nations, pp. 125, 142.
49 De vocatione 2.19, 29, PL 51:706, 715, Call of All Nations, pp. 125, 142.
50 De vocatione 2.16, PL 51:702–3, Call of All Nations, pp. 118–20.
51 De vocatione 2.16, PL 51:704; Call of All Nations, p. 120.
52 De vocatione 2.17, PL 51:704, Call of All Nations, p. 121.
53 De vocatione 1.8, 2.8, PL 51:654–7, 741, Call of All Nations, pp. 35–40, 100–2.
54 De vocatione 2.26, PL 51:711, Call of All Nations, p. 134: ‘Hanc quippe abundantiorem gratiam ita credimus atque experimur potentem, ut nullo modo arbitremur esse violentam, quod quidquid in salvandis hominibus agitur, ex sola Dei voluntate peragatur.’
55 De vocatione 2.26, PL 51:711–12, Call of All Nations, pp. 134–5.
56 De vocatione 2.28, PL 51:713; Call of All Nations, pp. 137–8: ‘Qui ad obediendum sibi ipsum velle sic donat, ut etiam a perseveraturis illam mutabilitatem quae potest nolle non auferat.’ It is unclear what Prosper means by ‘even those who will persevere’. Prosper seems to suggest that even those who will persevere have the power to refuse God's help, but do not, or that they do refuse God's help at certain times, but eventually accept it.
57 De vocatione 2.26, PL 51:711, Call of All Nations, p. 135: ‘de sua habens mutabilitate si deficit, de gratiae opitulatione si proficit’.
58 De vocatione 2.33, PL 51:718, Call of All Nations, pp. 147–8.
59 De vocatione 2.33, 36, PL 51:718, 721, Call of All Nations, pp. 148, 152.
60 De vocatione 2.36, PL 51:721, Call of All Nations, p. 152.
61 Cf. De vocatione 2.28, PL 51:713, Call of All Nations, pp. 137–8.
62 De vocatione 2.33, PL 51:717, Call of All Nations, p. 146.
63 De vocatione 2.30, PL 51:716, Call of All Nations, p. 143: ‘ut cum in temporibus, in nationibus in familiis in parvulis, in nondum natis et geminis quaedam aut varie aut insigniter gesta noscuntur’. Cf. 2.19, 22, PL 51:706, 709, Call of All Nations, pp. 125, 130.
64 De vocatione 2.30, PL 51:716, Call of All Nations, p. 143.
65 Aug., De spiritu et littera 33.57–8, CSEL 60:215–17. Leo, Serm. 18.2, 19.2, 24.1, 35.4, 38.3, 44.1, 67.1, 82.2, 91.1, Corpus Christianorum Latina (CCL) 138–138A. Cited in Letter, Call of All Nations, p. 167, nn. 60–1.
66 Letter, ‘Introduction’, Call of All Nations, p. 15.
67 Leo, Serm. 82.1, CCL 138A:509. On Leo's romanitas, see J. Mark Armitage, A Twofold Solidarity: Leo the Great's Theology of Redemption (Early Christian Studies 9; Strathfield, Australia: St Pauls, 2005), pp. 198–203.
68 Cassian, Conlatio 13.18.3–4, CSEL 13:395, Conferences, p. 490.
69 De vocatione 2.26, PL 51:711–12, Call of All Nations, p. 135.
70 De vocatione 2.26, PL 51:711, Call of All Nations, p. 135: ‘ut divino in se cooperatur operi, et incipiat exercere ad meritum, quod de superno semine concepit ad studium’. Cf. Cassian, Conlatio 13.14.4, CSEL 13:385, Conferences, p. 483.
71 Cassian, Conlatio 13.12.7, CSEL 13:380, Conferences, pp. 479–80.
72 Prosper, Contra collatorem 13.2, PL 51:248, Against Cassian, p. 105.
73 Ch. 33, approximately 70 lines, deals exclusively with election, but Prosper devotes chs 34–6, approximately 100 lines, to the practical effects of election. De vocatione 2.33–6, PL 51:717–22, Call of All Nations, pp. 145–52.
74 For the history of the debate on grace, see Henri Rondet, Gratia Christi (Paris: Beauchesne & Fils, 1948).
