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Augustinian origins of the Reformation reconsidered

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 December 2010

Mark Ellingsen
Mark Ellingsen*
Affiliation:
Interdenominational Theological Center, Atlanta GA 30314, [email protected]
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Abstract

The work of Alister McGrath and Julius Kostlin challenges the often-cited claim regarding Luther's dependence on Augustine. The article demonstrates that such critics fail to recognise the rich diversity of the African father's thought, but have been inclined to read it systematically the way the Roman Catholic interpretative tradition has. Text study of Augustine's writings, as well as Luther's comments about the African father, reveals that the Reformer's insights about soteriology (including the externality and passivity of righteousness as well as other aspects of his dialectical thinking) are affirmed by Augustine. Likewise, even Luther's critiques of Augustine lend insight into the Reformer's appropriation of his thought. The article demonstrates that when Luther diverges from the African father the two men are addressing incompatible pastoral concerns, but when he is inspired by Augustine their pastoral contexts are similar. This insight sheds fresh light on the sense in which we can speak of an Augustinian character of the Reformation. The article's findings also lend further credence to the possibility that there is a pattern to the use of Christian concepts in the history of the church, whereby, in similar contexts such as in response to perceived Pelagianism, Christians have pretty much responded similarly throughout the centuries.

Type
Research Article
Information
Scottish Journal of Theology , Volume 64 , Issue 1 , February 2011 , pp. 13 - 28
Copyright
Copyright © Scottish Journal of Theology Ltd 2010

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References

1 The claim that Luther's thought continues Augustine's line of thinking has Reformation roots. In The Augsburg Confession (1530), 20.12–13, Philip Melanchthon made this claim, though see the 1531 letter he wrote to Johann Brenz, in Dave Armstrong and Edwin Tait, ‘The Ambiguous Relationship of Luther and the Early Protestants to St Augustine’ (May 27, 2004), at http://socrates58.blogspot.com/2004/05/ambiguous-relationship-of-luther-and.html (accessed Nov. 18, 2010), and see D. Martin Luthers Werke: Briefwechsel (16 vols; Weimar: Hermann Böhlaus Nachfolger, 1930ff.; abbreviated as WABr), vol. 6, p. 100, on Melanchthon contending that sola fide did not characterise Augustine's view of justification. Among modern interpreters inclined to affirm the Augustinian roots of Luther's thought, see Delius, Hans-Ulrich, Augustin als Quelle Martin Luthers (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1884)Google Scholar; Lohse, Bernhard, ‘Die Bedeutung Augustins für den jungen Luther’, Kerygma und Dogma 11 (1965), pp. 116–35Google Scholar; Bainton, Roland H., The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1952), esp. p. 36Google Scholar; von Loewenich, Walther, Luther's Theology of the Cross, trans. Bouman, Herbert J. A. (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg, 1976), p. 66Google Scholar; Dillenberger, John and Welch, Claude, Protestant Christianity Interpreted through its Development (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1954), pp. 31, 52Google Scholar; Gritsch, Eric, Martin – God's Court Jester: Luther in Retrospect (Philadelphia, PA: Fortress Press, 1983), pp. 12, 16, 73Google Scholar; Stange, Carl, Theologische Aufsätze, vol. 8 (Leipzig, 1905)Google Scholar; Spitz, Lewis W., Luther and German Humanism (Variorum: Aldershot, 1996), pp. 93–101Google Scholar (who claimed that the Augustinian revival and humanism of the late Middle Ages conditioned Luther's mind); Oberman, Heiko A., Luther: Man between God and the Devil, trans. Walliser-Schwarzbart, Eileen (New York and London: Doubleday, 1992), esp. p. 180Google Scholar (as he claims that Luther was inspired by Augustine). The claim is made by implication in Oberman, Heiko A., ‘Headwaters of the Reformation: Initia Lutheri – Initia Reformationis’, in Oberman, (ed.), Luther and the Dawn of the Reformation (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1974), pp. 40–88Google Scholar; Oberman, Heiko A., The Reformation, Roots and Romification (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1994), pp. 25–6Google Scholar (on Luther's Augustinian eschatology). For the influence of Augustine on Luther's earliest research on the Bible, see Grane, Leif, Modus Loquendi Theologicus: Luthers Kampf um der Erneuerung der Theologie (1515–1518) (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1975), pp. 60–2Google Scholar. He claims that in Luther's Commentary on Romans the Reformer sometimes cited passages from Augustine in the margin and then did something entirely on his own in the gloss. Oberman, Heiko A., The Dawn of the Reformation (Edinburgh: T &T. Clark, 1986), esp. p. 52Google Scholar, claims that affirming the roots of Luther's theology in Augustine characterises contemporary interpretations of the Reformer's thought.

2 Kostlin, Julius, Martin Luther: Sein Leben und seine Schriften, vol. 1 (5th edn; Berlin: Alexander Duncker, 1903), p. 138Google Scholar; McGrath, Alister E., Iustitia Dei: A History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification (2nd edn; Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 25–7Google Scholar, 47; McGrath, Alister E., The Intellectual Origins of the European Reformation (Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell, 1987), esp. p. 177Google Scholar. Also see Pelikan, Jaroslav, Reformation of Church and Dogma (1300–1700), vol. 4 of The Christian Tradition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), pp. 140–41Google Scholar. Ibid., pp. 252–3, he cites others who felt Augustine was not the principal ancestor of the Reformation. Also see Oberman, Dawn of the Reformation, pp. 72, 119–20 (claiming that, unlike for Luther, sola fide does not characterise Augustine's view of justification and that the righteousness of God is the goal of justification, not given in the righteousness of Christ). A related version of this view is affirmed by Brian Gerrish and Edward Cranz, contending that Luther's earliest views were Augustinian, but that that was his pre-Reformation orientation. See Gerrish, Brian, The Old Protestantism and the New (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1982), pp. 74–6, 85Google Scholar; Cranz, F Edward, An Essay on the Development of Luther's Thought on Justice, Law, and Society (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959), pp. 22–7Google Scholar, 51–2, 58–61. Staupitz and Karlstadt are alleged to have been more faithful to Augustine than the mature Luther. See Fitzgerald, Allan D. (ed.), Augustine through the Ages (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1999), p. 517Google Scholar.

3 McGrath, Intellectual Origins, pp. 23–4, 199, provides a good example from Gabriel Biel of problems which resulted because of medieval theologians’ reliance on collections of Augustine's writings.

4 Ibid., pp. 26–7. See Canons of the Council of Carthage (418).

5 McGrath, Intellectual Origins, p. 87. Luther himself embodies this commitment in his Letter to George Spalatin, no. 27 (1516), in WABr, vol. 1, p. 70, line 8. English trans. in Luther's Works, vol. 48 (54 vols; St Louis and Philadelphia: Concordia Publishing House and Fortress Press, 1955ff.), p. 24 (hereafter referred to as LW); Letter to George Spalatin, no. 57 (1518), WABr 1:134.46/LW 48:54.

6 For insights about Luther's relation to other late mediaeval theological options, see McGrath, Intellectual Origins, pp. 27–8. Concerning Gregory of Rimini and Luther's relation to his strand of thinking, see Oberman, , Luther, trans. Walliser-Schwarzbart, Eileen (New York: Doubleday, 1992), p. 122Google Scholar. Luther's contemporaries saw him in Gregory's line of thinking. See Letter to George Spalitan, no. 187 (1519), WABr 1:422f.89ff./LW 31:322.

7 Oberman, Dawn of the Reformation, p. 79.

8 Martin Luther, Vorrede zum 1. Bande Gesamtausgaben seiner lateinischen Schriften (1545), in D. Martin Luthers Werke, Kritische Gesamtausgabe (Weimar Ausgabe: 56 vols; Weimar: Hermann Böhlaus Nachfolger, 1883ff.), vol 54, p.186, line 16 (hereafter WA)/English trans. in LW 34:337: ‘Postea legebam Augustinum de spiritu et litera, ubi praeter spem offendi, quod et ipse iustitiam Dei similiter interpretatur: qua nos Deus induit, dum nos iustificat’.

9 Augustine, De spiritu et littera (412), 9.15/English trans. in Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers, 1st ser. 5 (14 vols; reprint edn; Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1995), p.89 (hereafter NPNF): ‘Justitia, inquit, Dei manifestata est: non dixit, Justitia hominis, vel justitia propriae voluntatis; sed justitia Dei, non qua Deus Justus est, sed qua induit hominem, cum justificat impium . . . Justitia autem Dei per fidem Jesus Christi, hoc est, per fidem qua credit Christus . . . Utrumque enim nostrum est; sed ideo Dei et Christi dicitur, quod ejus nobis largitate donator’. Also ibid., 32:56/NPNF 5:108; Augustine, In Joannis Evangelium Tractatus (416), 26.6.1/NPNF 7:168; Augustine, De peccatorum meritis et remissione et de baptismo parvulorum (411), 1.13.18/NPNF 5:21.

10 Augustine, De spiritu et littera (412), 11.18/NPNF 5:90; Augustine, De nature boni contra Manichaeos (404), 31/NPNF 4:357.

11 Luther, Die Vorlesung über den Römerbrief (1515–16), WA 56:172.3ff.; 36:11/ LW 25:151–2, 30.

12 Luther, Tischreden (1538), no. 4007, in D. Martin Luthers Tischreden, vol. 4 (6 vols; Weimar: Hermann Böhlaus Nachfolger, 1912ff.), pp. 72–3, lines 27ff. (hereafter WATR)/LW 54:309. Also see Luther's earlier Quaestio de viribus et voluntate hominis sine gratia disputata (1516), WA 1:145–51.

13 Luther, First Sermon (c.1510), WA 4:592.15/LW 51:9; Luther, Sermo: Dominica X. post-Trinitatis (1516), WA 1:64.8/LW 51:16; cf. Luther, Dictata super Psalterium (1513–15), WA 3:54.11; 79.7; 94.5/LW 10:64, 86, 99.

14 Luther, Letter to John Lang (1517), WABr 1:99.8/LW 48:42: ‘Theologia nostra et S. Augustinus prospere procedunt et regnant in nostra universitate Deo operante. Aristoteles descendit paulatim inclinatus ad ruinam prope futuram sempiternam’.

15 Luther, Dictata super Psalterium (1513–15), WA 3:26.28/LW 10:27.

16 Ibid., 54.1/LW 10:64.

17 Ibid., 254f.35/LW 10:210.

18 Ibid., 587.20/LW 11:75–6.

19 Ibid., 4:239.10/LW 11:372; cf. Luther, Disputatio pro declaratione virtutis indulgentiarum, 18 (1517), WA 1:234.11/LW 31:26; Luther, Resolutiones disputationum de indulgentiarum virtute (1517), WA 1:563.15ff./LW 31: 138–9.

20 Luther, Dictata super Psalterium (1513–15), WA 3:44f.39/LW 10:50.

21 Luther, Die Vorlesung über den Römerbrief (1515–16), WA 56:273f.9/LW 25:261; cf. Augustine, De nuptiis et concupiscentia (418/420), 1.25.28/NPNF 1/5:275.

22 Gregory of Rimini, II Sent. Dist. (1482), xxixqlal; John Duns Scotus, Reportata Parisiensis (c.1305), I dist.xvii, q. 1, nn. 5–6.

23 Luther, Die Vorlesung über den Römerbrief, WA 56:69.24; 353.14/LW 25: 63,342; Augustine, Contra Julianum (421/422), 3.7.

24 Luther, Die Vorlesung über den Römerbrief, WA 56:352.22; 353.5/LW 25:341, 342; cf. Augustine, De nuptiis et concupiscentia (418/420), 1.22.25/NPNF I/5:274.

25 Luther, Die Vorlesung über den Römerbrief, WA 56:351.3; 352.22/LW 25:339–40, 341. See Luther, Grund und Ursach aller Artikel D. Martin Luthers so durch römische Bulle unrechtlich verdammt sind (1521), WA 7:342.8ff.; 344.10/LW 32: 27, 28; Martin Luther, Rationis Latominae confutati (1521), WA 8:90.5/LW 32:204.

26 Luther, Die Vorlesung über den Römerbrief, WA 56:189.24/LW 25:172; cf. Augustine, De civitate Dei (413–26), 4.4/NPNF 2:66.

27 Die Vorlesung über den Römerbrief, WA 56:385.15–22/LW 25:375. Also see De servo arbitrio (1525), WA 18:665.6/LW 33:108; cf. Augustine, Contra Julianum (421/422), 3.8, 23.

28 Luther, Die Vorlesung über den Römerbrief, WA 56:200.15; 340f.30/LW 25:183–4, 329.

29 Ibid., WA 56:256f.29/LW 25:243–4.

30 Ibid., WA 56:202.15/LW 25:186; cf. Augustine, De spiritu et littera (412), 27.47–28.49; 33.58–34.60/NPNF 5:103–4, 109–10; Augustine, De natura et gratia, contra Pelagium (415), 27.31; 46.54–50.58; 67.80/NPNF 5:131–2, 139–41, 149.

31 Ibid., WA 56:241.4/LW 25:226–7.

32 Luther, Disputatio contra scholasticum theologiam (1517), 9, 10, 11, 13, WA 1:233f.27ff./LW 31:10. Also see Luther, Vorlesung über den 1. Johannisbrief (1527), WA 20:753.36/LW 30:300.

33 Luther, Disputatio contra scholasticum theologiam (1517), 12, 13, 40, 56, WA 1:233f.33ff./LW 31:10, 12, 13.

34 Luther, Letter to George Spalatin (1518), WABr 1:134.47/LW 48:54.

35 Luther, Tischreden (1531), no. 85, WATR 1:32.7/LW 54:10. Luther makes the same criticism in his In epistolam Pauli ad Galatas commentarius (1519), WA 2:493.27/ LW 27:225–226. Cf. Augustine, Contra duas epistolas Pelagianorum (c.420), 3.20/NPNF 5:412.

36 Augustine, Contra duas epistolas Pelagianorum 3.21–2/NPNF 5:412–13; Augustine, Confessiones (399), 10.2.2; 8.9.21; 8.5.10/NPNF 1:142, 125, 120–1; Augustine, Sermones (n.d.), 67.1/NPNF 6:311; (c.409) 57.9/NPNF 6:283; Augustine, De natura et gratia, contra Pelagium (415), 53.61/NPNF 6:5:142; Augustine, De nuptiis et concupiscentia (418/420), 1.30.33; 1.27.30–1.28.31/NPNF 5: 277, 276.

37 Luther, Vorlesung über den 1. Johannisbrief (1527), WA 20:776.22/LW 30:313.

38 Ibid., WA 20:775f.26ff.

39 Luther, Grund und Ursach aller Artikel D. Martin Luthers, so durch römische Bulle unrechtlich verdammt sind (1521), WA 7:325.27/LW 32:17; Luther, Resolutiones disputationum de indulgentarum virtute (1517), WA 1:595.5/LW 31:193; cf. Augustine, De peccatorum meritis et remissione, et de baptismo parvulorum (412), 1.14.18; 1.17.43/NPNF 5:21–2, 31–2; Augustine, De spiritu et littera (412), 19.34/NPNF 5:97, 105.

40 Luther, Vorrede aud die Epistel S. Pauli an die Römer (1546/1522), in D. Martin Luthers Werke: Die Deutsche Bibel, vol. 7 (9 vols; Weimar: Hermann Böhlaus Nachfolger, 1906ff.), p. 12, line 21/English trans. in LW 35:372; Luther, Um zwolften Sonntage nach Trinitatis (n.d), 19, in Martin Luthers Sammtliche Schriften (St Louis edn), vol. 12 (23 vols.; St Louis: Concordia, 1881–1910), p. 842.

41 Luther, Vorlesungen über 1. Mose (1536), WA 42:45.2ff. /LW 1:60–1; Luther, Tischreden (1532), no. 252, WATR 1:106.6/LW 54:34.

42 Luther, Tischreden (1532), no. 347, WATR 1:140.3/LW 54:49.

43 Ibid. (1538), no. 2867b, WATR 3:40.20/LW 54:177; no. 4057, WATR 4:105.14/LW 54:315.

44 Ibid. (1539), no. 4331, WATR 4:227f.19ff./LW 54:329.

45 Ibid. (1539), no. 4567, WATR 4:380.23/LW 54:352.

46 Luther, Die sieben Butzpsalmen (1517/1525), WA 18:522.11; 479.3/LW 14:196, 140.

47 Luther, In epistolam Pauli ad Galatas commentarius (1519), WA 2:468.33; 592.4/LW 27:188, 372.

48 Ibid., WA 2:495.9/LW 27:227–8. Also see Luther, Grund und Ursach aller Artikel D. Martin Luthers, so durch römische Bulle unrechtlich verdammt sind (1521), WA 7:344.10/LW 32:28; Luther, Die Disputation de iustificatione (1536), WA 39I:95.22/ LW 34:164.

49 Luther, Commentariolus en epistolam divi Pauli Apostoli ad Hebreos (1517–18), WA 57III:113, 114/LW 29:123; Luther, In epistolam Pauli ad Galatas commentarius (1519), WA 2:501.34/LW 27:238; cf. Augustine, De Trinitate (c.410), 4.7.6/NPNF 3:72–3.

50 Luther, Luthers Randbemerkungen zu den Sentenzen des Petrus Lombardus (1509–12), WA 9:44.1–4. Cf. Luther, Tractatus de liberate christiana (1520), WA 7:54.31–55.27/LW 31:351f.; Luther, Resolutiones Disputationum de indulgentarium Virtute (1518), WA 1:593.4/LW 31:189ff., 192; Luther, In epistolam S. Pauli ad Galatas Commentarius (1535), WA 40I:284.20–33/LW 26:167–8. For the Finnish School of Interpretation, see Mannermaa, Tuomo, Christ Present in Faith: Luther's View of Justification, ed. Stjerna, Kirsi (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2005)Google Scholar.

51 Johann von Staupitz, Tractatus de executione aeternae praedestinationis fratris Ioannis de Staupitz, Theologi et Augustinensium Vicarii (1517), 9; cf. Oberman, Dawn of the Reformation, p. 125.

52 Luther, Vorrede zu der vollständigen Ausgabe der ‘deutschen Theologie’ (1518), WA 1:378f.21ff./LW 31:75–6. For the presence of this theme in Augustine, see his Confessiones (399), 1.5.6; 5.7.13; 10.1.1/NPNF 1:46, 83, 142; Augustine, Enchiridion ad Laurentium de fide spe et caritate (421), 31/NPNF 3:247–8; Augustine, Epistulae 188 (406), 2.7–8/NPNF 1:550–1; Augustine, Epistulae 131 (412–13)/NPNF 1:469. For the ‘blessed exchange’, see his Sermones 80 (c.410), 5/NPNF 6:351.

53 Luther, Disputatio Heidelbergae habita (1518), WA 1:360.9/LW 31:49. Also see Luther, Disputatio contra scholasticum theologiam (1517), 10, WA 1:224.3/LW 31:10; Luther, Grund und Ursach aller Artikel D. Martin Luthers, so durch römische Bulle unrechtlich verdammt sind (1521), WA 7:446, 18/LW 32:92; cf. Augustine, De spiritu et littera (412), 3.5/NPNF 5:84–5; Augustine, Contra Julianum (421/2), 8.23.

54 Luther, Disputatio Heibelbergae habita (1518), WA 1:353.8/LW 31:39; Oberman, Dawn of the Reformation, p. 95.

55 Luther, Acta F. Martini Luther Augustiniani apud D. Legatum Apostolicum Augustae (1518), WA 2:22.22/LW 31:285; Luther, In epistolam Pauli ad Galatas commentarius (1519), WA 2:447.15/LW 27:156; Luther, Grund und Ursach aller Artikel D. Martin Luthers, so durch römische Bulle unrechtlich verdammt sind (1521), WA 7:315.28/LW 32:11. While often endorsing the authority of tradition (most famously in his De utilitate credendi (391–2), 14.31/NPNF 3:362), Augustine did appeal to the sole authority of scripture to counter heresy in his De natura et gratia, contra Pelagium (415), 37.44/NPNF 5:136; Augustine, Epistulae 93 (408), 10/NPNF 1:395.

56 Luther, Letter to George Spalatin (1518), WABr 1:134.1/LW 48:54; Luther, Rationis Latominae confutatio (1521), WA 8:89.23/LW 32:203–4.

57 Luther, Tischreden (1538), no. 4007, WATR 4:73.1/LW 54:309; Luther, De servo arbitrio (1525), WA 18:630.22; 640.5/LW 33:58, 72.

58 Luther, Letter to George Spalatin (1516), WABr 1:70.8/LW48:24; Luther, Glosse auf das vermeinte kaiserliche Edikt, WA 30III:373f.28ff./LW 34:95.

59 Luther, Vorlesung über Jesaia (1527–9), WA 31II:505/LW 17:318; Luther, Von den Konziliis und Kirchen (1539), WA 50:614f.35/LW 41:132.

60 Luther, Antwort auf schrifliche Fragen Melanchthons (1536), WABr 12:191.1–5, 23–4; 193.

61 Luther, Uon welltlicher Uberkeytt wie weyt man yhr gehorsam schuldig sey (1523), WA 11:264.22; 249.24/LW 45:108, 88–9. Oberman, Heiko, in his ‘Martin Luther: Forerunner of the Reformation’, in Pettegree, Andrew (ed.), The Reformation: Critical Concepts in Historical Studies (London and New York: Routledge, 2004), pp. 3–4Google Scholar, contends for the Augustinian influence of Luther's eschatology, but has not provided express documentation for this. Bornkamm, Heinrich, Luther's Doctrine of the Two Kingdoms in the Context of his Theology, trans. Hertz, Karl H. (Philadelphia, PA: Fortress Press, 1966), pp. 19–28Google Scholar, points out differences between Luther and Augustine regarding the two realms, but he does concede that the Reformer's thinking was inspired by the African father.

62 Luther, Auff das ubirchristlich, ubirgeystlich und uberkunstlich buch Bocks Emsers Leypczick Antwortt D.M.L. Darynn auch Murnarrs seynsz gesselln gadacht wir (1521), WA 7:652.8/LW 39:180–1.

63 Luther, Vorrede zum 2. Bande der Wittenburger Ausgabe der deutschen Schriften (1539), WA 50:658.21/LW 34:285; Luther, Von den Consiliis und Kirchen (1539), WA 50:524f.12ff./LW 41:25–6; Luther, Letter to Nicholas von Amsdorf (1521), WABr 2:362.29/LW 48:266; cf. Augustine, De baptismo (c.400), 2.3–4/NPNF 4:427; Augustine, De natura et gratia (415), 37.44/NPNF 5:136.

64 Luther, In epistolam S. Pauli ad Galatas Commentarius (1535), WA 40I:486.20/LW 26: 313. We saw the Reformer make this affirmation in 1519 in his In epistolam Pauli ad Galatas commentarius, WA 2:468f.33ff.; 552.3/LW 27:188, 313–14 (in the latter text contending that the distinction is identical with the letter–spirit distinction). The same affirmation was made by the Reformer in 1518 in the Disputatio Heidelbergae habito, WA 1:356.2/LW 31:42–3.

65 Luther, Vorlesungen über 1. Mose (1536), WA 42:4.26; 91.22/LW 1:4, 121; cf. Augustine, De Genesi ad litteram libri (c.399/415), 12.4.33/CSEL XXVIII/1:133.

66 Luther, Vorlesungen über 1. Mose (1536), WA 42:9.21/LW 1:10–11.

67 Luther, Deutsch Catechismus (1529), 4.18, WA 30I:214.14.

68 See note 55 for references.

69 For a more detailed analysis of the rich, patterned diversity in Augustine's thought on this range of issues, see my The Richness of Augustine: His Contextual and Pastoral Theology (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005).

70 For examples, Augustine, In Johannis Evangelium Tractatus (c.406/421), 29.6/NPNF 7:184; Augustine, De libero arbitrio (387/8–95), 2.2.6/English trans.: J. H. S. Burleigh, ed., Augustine: Earlier Writings (Philadelphia, PA: Westminster Press, 1963), p. 109.

71 Augustine, De civitate Dei (413–26), 22.5/NPNF 2:481–2: ‘Haec igitur duo incredibili, resurrectionem scilicet nostril corporis in aeternum, et rem tam incredibilem mundum esse crediturum . . . Unam duorum uncredibilium jam factum videmus, ut quod eat incredibile, crederet mundus, sicut jam venit, quod similiter incredible fuit. . .’

72 Augustine, De spiritu et littera (412), 19.34/NPNF 5:97: ‘Non tamen per eadem legem justificatis impiis, sed per gratiam . . . Lex ergo data est, ut gratia quaereretur: gratia data est, ut lex impleretur.’ Cf. Augustine, De gratia Christi, et de peccato originali (418), 1.13.14/NPNF 5:223.

73 See the references to Augustine's writings in note 30.

74 Augustine, Enchiridion ad Laurentium de fide spe et caritate (421), 41/NPNF 3:251: ‘Ipse ergo peccatum, ut nos justitia; nec nostra sed Dei; nec in nobis, sed in ipso. . .’ Cf. Augustine, De gratia Christi, et de peccato originali (418), 1.13.14/NPNF 5:22.

75 Augustine, De spiritu et littera (412), 18.31/NPNF 5:96: ‘Et paulo post cum eamdem gratiam uberius in Domino Jesu Christo commendans, usque ad illud veniret indumentum justitiae fidei, quo induti non nudi inveniamur, et propter hoc ingemiscimus mortalitate praegravati . . . Haec est illa justitia Dei, non qua ipse Justus est, sed qua nos ab eo facti.’

76 Augustine, De peccatorum meritis et remissione et de baptismo parvulorum (411), 1.13.18/NPNF 5:21–2: ‘Unde dicitur, Credenti in eum justificat impium, deputatur fides ejus ad justitiam.’ Cf. ibid. 1.27.43; 2.32.52/NPNF 5:31–2, 65; De spiritu et littera (412), 18.31/NPNF 5:96; Augustine, Contra duas epistulas Pelagianorum (c.420), 3.5.14/NPNF 5:408–9.

77 Augustine, De Praedestinatione Sanctorum (428/9), 19.39/NPNF 5:517; cf. Augustine, De perfectione justitiae hominis (415), 11.27/NPNF 5:168; Augustine, In Johannis Evangelium Tractatus (c.406/421), 26.6.1/NPNF 7:168; Augustine, De spiritu et littera (412), 16.45/NPNF 5:102. For Luther on passive righteousness, see his Vorrede zum 1. Bande Gesamtausgaben seiner lateinischen Schriften (1545), WA 54:186, 6–7/LW 34:337.

78 Augustine, De nuptiis et concupiscentia (418/420), 1.25.28/NPNF 5:275: ‘ad haec respondetur, dimitti concupiscentiam carnis in Baptismo, non ut non sit, sed in peccatum non impatetur’. Cf. Augustine, De gratia Christi et de peccato original (418), 2.39.41/NPNF 5:253; Augustine, De natura et gratia, contra Pelagium (415), 53.61/NPNF 5:142.

79 McGrath, Intellectual Origins, p. 87.

80 Luther, ‘Zu Augustini Opuscular’ (1519), in Randbemerkungen Luthers, WA 9:4; cf. McGrath, Intellectual Origins, p. 178.

81 Such a position was voiced by George Lindbeck, ‘Classroom Lectures for “Luther and Augustine” Course’, Yale Divinity School, New Haven, CT, 1973.