Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-ndw9j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-08T14:10:02.419Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Holding or Breaking with Ptolemy's Generalization: Considerations about the Motion of the Planetary Apsidal Lines in Medieval Islamic Astronomy

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 April 2017

S. Mohammad Mozaffari
S. Mohammad Mozaffari*
Affiliation:
Research Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics of Maragha (RIAAM), Iran E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Argument

In the Almagest, Ptolemy finds that the apogee of Mercury moves progressively at a speed equal to his value for the rate of precession, namely one degree per century, in the tropical reference system of the ecliptic coordinates. He generalizes this to the other planets, so that the motions of the apogees of all five planets are assumed to be equal, while the solar apsidal line is taken to be fixed. In medieval Islamic astronomy, one change in this general proposition took place because of the discovery of the motion of the solar apogee in the ninth century, which gave rise to lengthy discussions on the speed of its motion. Initially Bīrūnī and later Ibn al-Zarqālluh assigned a proper motion to it, although at different rates. Nevertheless, appealing to the Ptolemaic generalization and interpreting it as a methodological axiom, the dominant idea became to extend it in order to include the motion of the solar apogee as well. Another change occurred after correctly making a distinction between the motion of the apogees and the rate of precession. Some Western Islamic astronomers generalized Ibn al-Zarqālluh's proper motion of the solar apogee to the apogees of the planets. Analogously, Ibn al-Shāṭir maintained that the motion of the apogees is faster than precession. Nevertheless, the Ptolemaic generalization in the case of the equality of the motions of the apogees remained untouchable, despite the notable development of planetary astronomy, in both theoretical and observational aspects, in the late Islamic period.

Type
Research Article
Information
Science in Context , Volume 30 , Issue 1 , March 2017 , pp. 1 - 32
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References

Abharī, Athīr al-Dīn. Al-Zīj al-Mulakhkhaṣ ‘alā al-raṣad al-‘Alā’ī;. MSS. K: Kolkata, National Library, Buhar, no. 347, U: Utrecht, University Library, no. 1442, F: Florence, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Or. 106/2.Google Scholar
Anon. (Abharī, Athīr al-Dīn?). Al-Zīj al-Shāmil. MSS. P: Iran, Parliament Library, no. 6422, F1: Florence, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Or. 106/1, F2: Florence, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Or. 95/2, D: Dublin, Chester Beatty Library, Arabic 4076, Pa: Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, arabe 2528.Google Scholar
Anon. (Abharī, Athīr al-Dīn?) (dedicated to Najm al-Dīn ‘Alī b. ‘Umar b. ‘Alī Dabīrān/al-Kātibī al-Qazwīnī). Kitāb fī ṣinā‘at al-majisṭī; (Book on the Art/Industry of the Almagest). MSS. P1: Iran, Parliament Library, no. 6195, P2: Iran, Parliament Library, no. 1440, N: Iran, National Library, no. 2607560, I: Istanbul, Süleymaniye, Ayasofia, no. 2583, Pa: Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, arabe 2515.Google Scholar
Ibn al-Fahhād: Farīd al-Dīn Abu al-Ḥasan ‘Alī b. ‘Abd al-Karīm al-Fahhād al-Shirwānī or al-Bākū’ī. Zīj al-‘Alā’ī;. MS. India, Salar Jung, no. H17.Google Scholar
Ibn al-Shāṭir, ‘Alā’ al-Dīn Abu ’l-Ḥasan ‘Alī b. Ibrāhīm b. Muḥammad al-Muṭa‘‘im al-Anṣārī. Al-Zīj al-Jadīd. MSS. K: Istanbul, Kandilli Observatory, no. 238, O: Oxford, Bodleian Library, no. Seld. A inf 30, D: Damascus, Asad National library, no. 3093; L1: Leiden, Universiteitsbibliotheek, no. Or. 65; L2: Leiden, Universiteitsbibliotheek, Or. 530; PR: Princeton, Princeton University Library, no. Yahuda 145.Google Scholar
Yūnus, Ibn, ‘Alī b. ‘Abd al-Raḥmān b. Aḥmad. Zīj al-Kabīr al-Ḥākimī;. MS. L: Leiden, Universiteitsbibliotheek, no. Or. 143, MS. O: Oxford, Bodleian Library, no. Hunt 331.Google Scholar
al-Kāshī, Jamshīd Ghiyāth al-Dīn. Khāqānī zīj. MS. IO: London: India Office, no. 430; P: Iran: Parliament Library, no. 6198.Google Scholar
al-Maghribī, Mūḥyī al-Dīn. Adwār al-anwār. MS. M: Iran, Mashhad, Holy Shrine Library, no. 332; MS. CB: Ireland, Dublin, Chester Beatty, no. 3665.Google Scholar
al-Maghribī, Mūḥyī al-Dīn. Talkhīṣ al-majisṭī;. MS. Leiden: Universiteitsbibliotheek, Or. 110.Google Scholar
al-Maghribī, Mūḥyī al-Dīn. Kitāb al-Zīj ‘Umdat al-ḥāsib wa ghunyat al-ṭālib. MS. M: Cairo: Egyptian National Library, no. MM 188.Google Scholar
Muḥammad b, Taqī al-Dīn. Ma‘rūf. Sidrat muntaha al-afkar fī malakūt al-falak al-dawwār (The Lotus Tree in the Seventh Heaven of Reflection). MS. K: Istanbul, Kandilli Observatory, no. 208/1 (up to f. 48v).Google Scholar
Al-Ṭūsī, Naṣīr al-Dīn. Īlkhānī zīj. MSS. C: University of California, Caro Minasian Collection, no. 1462; T: University of Tehran, Ḥikmat Collection, no. 165 + Suppl. P: Iran, Parliament Library, no. 6517 (Remark: The latter is not actually a separate manuscript, but contains 31 folios missing from MS T. The chapters and tables in MS. T are badly out of order, presumably owing to the folios having been bound in disorder), P: Iran, Parliament Library, no. 181, M1: Iran, Mashhad, Holy Shrine Library, no. 5332a; M2: Iran, Qum, Mar‘ashī Library, no. 13230.Google Scholar
Beg, Ulugh. Sulṭānī Zīj. MS. P1: Iran, Parliament Library, no. 72; MS. P2: Iran, Parliament Library, no. 6027.Google Scholar
Manṣūr, Yaḥyā b. Abī. Zīj al-mumtaḥan. MS. E: Madrid, Library of Escorial, no. árabe 927 (published in The verified astronomical tables for the caliph al-Ma'mūn, edited by Fuad Sezgin, with an introduction by Edward S. Kennedy. Frankfurt am Main: Institut für Geschichte der Arabisch-Islamischen Wissenschaften, 1986), MS. L: Leipzig, Universitätsbibliothek, no. Vollers 821.Google Scholar
Abbud, Fuad. 1962. “The Planetary Theory of Ibn al-Shāṭir: Reduction of the Geometric Models to Numerical Tables.” Isis 53:492–499.Google Scholar
Bearman, Peri, Bianquis, Th., Bosworth, C.E., van Donzel, E., and Heinrichs, W. P., 1960–2005. [EI 2:] Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed., 12 vols. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
al-Bīrūnī, Abū al-Rayḥān. 1954–1956. Al-Qānūn al-mas‘ūdī; (Mas‘ūdīc canons), 3 vols. Hyderabad: Osmania Bureau. MSS. F: Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, no. Ar. 6840, B: Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, no. Or. Oct. 275 = Ahlwardt 5667.Google Scholar
al-Bīrūnī, Abū al-Rayḥān. 1967. Taḥdīd nahayāt al-amākin li-taṣḥīḥ masāfāt al-masākin (Determination of the coordinates of positions for the correction of distances between cities). Translated into English by J. Ali. Beirut.Google Scholar
Brahmagupta. 1970. The Khaṇḍakhādyaka of Brahmagupta. Translated into English and edited by Bina Chatterjee. New Delhi: Bina Chatterjee.Google Scholar
Caussin de Perceval, J.-J.-A. 1804. “Le livre de la grande table hakémite, Observée par le Sheikh, . . ., ebn Iounis.” Notices et Extraits des Manuscrits de la Bibliothèque nationale 7:16–240.Google Scholar
Copernicus, Nicolaus. 1543. De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, Nuremberg. On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres. Translated into English by Charles Glenn Wallis. Annapolis: St John's College Bookstore, 1939. Reprinted in The Great Books of the Western World, 2nd edn, vol. 15. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 1990.Google Scholar
van Dalen, Benno. 2002a. “Islamic and Chinese Astronomy under the Mongols: A Little-Known Case of Transmission.” In From China to Paris: 2000 years transmission of mathematical ideas, edited by Dold-Samplonius, Y., 327–356. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner.Google Scholar
van Dalen, Benno. 2002b. “Islamic Astronomical Tables in China: The Sources for the Huihui Ii.” In History of Oriental Astronomy (Proceedings of the Joint Discussion 17 at the 23rd General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union, Organised by the Commission 41 (History of Astronomy), Held in Kyoto, August 25–26, 1997), edited by Ansari, Raza, 19–30. Dordrecht: Kluwer.Google Scholar
van Dalen, Benno. 2004. “The Zīj-i Naṣirī; by Maḥmūd ibn Umar: the earliest Indian Zij and its relation to the ‘Alā’ī Zīj .” In Studies in the history of the exact sciences in honour of David Pingree, edited by Burnett, Charles, 825–862. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Dorce, Carlos. 2002–2003. “The Tāj al-azyāj of Muḥyī al-Dīn al-Maghribī (d. 1283): Methods of Computation.” Suhayl 3:193–212.Google Scholar
Dorce, Carlos. 2003. El Tāŷ al-azyāŷ de Muḥyī al-Dīn al-Maghribī. Anuari de Filologia, Vol. 25, Secció B, Número 5. Barcelona: University of Barcelona.Google Scholar
Duke, Dennis. 2006. “Ancient Declinations and Precession.” DIO 13:26–34.Google Scholar
Gillespie, Charles Coulston, ed. 1970–1980. [DSB:] Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 16 vols. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Bernard R. 1985. The Astronomy of Levi ben Gerson (1288-1344), a Critical Edition of Chapters 1-20 with Translation and Commentary. New York: Springer-Verlag.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Bernard R. 1988. “A New Set of Fourteenth-Century Planetary Observations.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 132:371–399.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Bernard R. 1994. “Historical Perspectives on Copernicus's Account of Precession.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 25:189–197.Google Scholar
Hartner, Willy, and Schramm, M.. 1961. “Al-Bīrūnī and the Theory of the Solar Apogee: An Example of Originality in Arabic Science.” In Scientific Change. Historical Studies in the Intellectual, Social and Technical Conditions for Scientific Discovery and Technical Invention, from Antiquity to the Present. Symposium on the History of Science, University of Oxford 9–15 July 1961, edited by Crombie, A.C., 206–218. London: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Hockey, Thomas, ed. 2007. [BEA:] The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, Alexander. 2005. “In Order that we Should Not Ourselves Appear to be Adjusting our Estimates . . . to Make Them Fit Some Predetermined Amount.” In Wrong for the Right Reasons, edited by Buchwald, J. Z. and Franklin, A., 17–39. The Netherlands: Springer.Google Scholar
Kennedy, Edward Stewart. 1956. “A Survey of Islamic Astronomical Tables.” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, New Series 46:123–177.Google Scholar
Kennedy, Edward Stewart. 1958. “The Sasanian Astronomical Handbook Zīj-i Shāh and the Astrological Doctrine of “Transit” (Mamarr).” Journal of the American Oriental Society 78:246–262.Google Scholar
Kennedy, Edward Stewart. 1973. A Commentary upon Bīrūnī’s Kitāb Taḥdīd al-Amākin. Beirut: American University of Beirut.Google Scholar
Kennedy, Edward Stewart, and Roberts, Victor. 1959. “The Planetary Theory of Ibn al-Shāṭir.” Isis 50:227–235.Google Scholar
Kennedy, Edward Stewart, and Ghanem, I., eds. 1976. The Life and Work of Ibn al-Shāṭir: An Arab Astronomer of the Fourteenth Century. Aleppo: Institute for History of Arabic Science.Google Scholar
Kennedy, Edward Stewart, and Pingree, David, eds. 1981. The Book of the Reasons behind Astronomical Tables. New York: Scholars’ Facsimiles & Reprints.Google Scholar
King, David A. 1999. “Aspects of Fatimid Astronomy: From Hard-Core Mathematical Astronomy to Architectural Orientations in Cairo.” In L’Égypte Fatimide: son art et son histoire – Actes du colloqie organisé à Paris les 28, 29 et 30 mai 1998, edited by Barrucand, M., 497–517. Paris: Presses de l'Université de Paris-Sorbonne.Google Scholar
King, David A., and Gingerich, Owen. 1982. “Some Astronomical Observations from Thirteenth-Century Egypt.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 13:121–128.Google Scholar
Koertge, Noretta, ed. 2008. [NDSB:] New Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 8 vols. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons.Google Scholar
Kunitzsch, Paul. 1986. “The Star Catalogue Commonly Appended to the Alfonsine Tables.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 17:89–98. Reprinted in idem. 1989. The Arabs and the Stars, Trace XXII. Northampton: Variorum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maeyama, Yas. 1998. “Determination of the Sun's Orbit. Hipparchus, Ptolemy, al-Battânî, Copernicus, Tycho Brahe.” Archive for History of Exact Sciences 53:1–49.Google Scholar
Mancha, José Luis. 1998. “Heuristic Reasoning: Approximation Procedures in Levi ben Gerson's Astronomy.” Archives for History of Exact Sciences 52:13–50.Google Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad. 2013a. “Limitations of Methods: the Accuracy of the Values Measured for the Earth's/Sun's Orbital Elements in the Middle East, A.D. 800 and 1500.” Journal for the History of Astronomy Part1: 44 (3):313–336, Part 2: 44(4):389–411.Google Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad. 2013b. “Historical Annular Solar Eclipses.” Journal of British Astronomical Association 123:33–36.Google Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad. 2013c. “Wābkanawī’s Prediction and Calculations of the Annular Solar Eclipse of 30 January 1283.” Historia Mathematica 40:235–261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad. 2013d. “Bīrūnī’s Four-Point Method for Determining the Eccentricity and the Direction of the Apsidal Lines of the Superior Planets.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 44:207–211.Google Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad. 2014a. “A Case Study of How Natural Phenomena Were Justified in Medieval Science: The Situation of Annular Eclipses in Medieval Astronomy.” Science in Context 27:33–47.Google Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad. 2014b. “Ptolemaic Eccentricity of the Superior Planets in the Medieval Islamic Period.” In Scientific Cosmopolitanism and Local Cultures: Religions, Ideologies, Societies; Proceedings of 5th International Conference of the European Society for the History of Science (Athens, 1–3 November 2012), edited by Katsiampoura, Gianna, 23–30. Athens: National Hellenic Research Foundation.Google Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad. 2014c. “Muḥyī al-Dīn al-Maghribī’s lunar measurements at the Maragha observatory.” Archive for History of Exact Sciences 68:67–120.Google Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad. 2015. “Annular eclipses and considerations about solar and lunar angular diameters in medieval astronomy.” In New Insights from Recent Studies in Historical Astronomy: Following in the Footsteps of F. Richard Stephenson, edited by Orchiston, Wayne et al., 119–142. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad. 2016a. “A Forgotten Solar Model.” Archive for History of Exact Sciences 70:267–291.Google Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad. 2016b. “Planetary Latitudes in Medieval Islamic Astronomy: An Analysis of the non-Ptolemaic Latitude Parameter Values in the Maragha and Samarqand Astronomical Traditions.” Archive for History of Exact Sciences 70:513–541.Google Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad. 2016c. “A Medieval Bright Star Table: The Non-Ptolemaic Star Table in the Īlkhānī Zīj .” Journal for the History of Astronomy 47:294–316.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad. 2016d. “A Revision of the Mumtaḥan and Ibn al-A‘lam's star tables.” Suhayl 15: to appear.Google Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad, and Steele, John. 2015. “Solar and Lunar Observations at Istanbul in the 1570s.” Archive for History of Exact Sciences 69:343–362.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad and Zotti, Georg. 2013. “The Observational Instruments at the Maragha Observatory after AD 1300.” Suhayl 12:45–179.Google Scholar
Nallino, Carlo Alfonso (ed.). [1899–1907] 1969. Al-Battani sive Albatenii Opus Astronomicum. Publicazioni del Reale osservatorio di Brera in Milano, n. XL, pte. I–III. Milan: Mediolani Insubrum. The 1969 Reprint of Nallino's edition: Frankfurt: Minerva.Google Scholar
Neugebauer, Otto. 1962. “Thabit ben Qurra 'On the Solar Year' and 'On the Motion of the Eighth Sphere'.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 106:264–299.Google Scholar
Neugebauer, Otto. 1975. A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy. Berlin-Heidelberg-New\sYork: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neugebauer, Otto, and Pingree, David. 1970–1971. The Pañcasiddhāntikā of Varāhamihira, 2 vols. Copenhagen: Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.Google Scholar
Newton, Robert Russell. 1973. “The Authenticity of Ptolemy's Parallax Data—-Part 1.” Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 14:367–388.Google Scholar
Pannekoek, Anton. 1995. “Ptolemy's precession.” Vistas in Astronomy 1:60–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pedersen, Olaf. 1974. A Survey of Almagest. Odense: Odense University Press. With annotation and new commentary by Alexander Jones, New York: Springer, 2010.Google Scholar
Pingree, David. 1964. “Gregory Chioniades and Palaeologan Astronomy.” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 18:133–160.Google Scholar
Pingree, David. 1965. “The Persian “Observation” of the Solar Apogee in ca. A.D. 450.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 24:334–336.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pingree, David. 1968. “The Fragments of the Works of Ya‘qūb Ibn Ṭāriq.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 27:97–125.Google Scholar
Pingree, David. 1970. “The Fragments of the Works of Al-Fazārī.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 29:103–123.Google Scholar
Pingree, David. 1972. “Precession and Trepidation in Indian Astronomy before A.D. 1200.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 3:27–35.Google Scholar
Pingree, David. 1976. “The Recovery of Early Greek Astronomy from India.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 7:109–123.Google Scholar
Pingree, David (ed.). 1985–1986. Astronomical Works of Gregory Chioniades, Part 1: Zīj al-‘Alā’ī;, 2 vols. Amsterdam: Gieben.Google Scholar
Roberts, Victor. 1957. “The Solar and Lunar Theory of Ibn ash-Shāṭir, a pre-Copernican Copernican Model.” Isis 48:428–432.Google Scholar
Roberts, Victor. 1966. “The planetary theory of Ibn al-Shāṭir: Latitudes of the Planets.” Isis 57:208–219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenfeld, Boris A., and İhsanoğlu, Ekmeleddin. 2003. Mathematicians, Astronomers, and Other Scholars of Islamic Civilization and their Works (7th–19th c.). Istanbul: IRCICA.Google Scholar
Saliba, George. 1983. “An Observational Notebook of a Thirteenth-Century Astronomer.” Isis 74:388–401. Reprinted in Saliba 1994, 163–176.Google Scholar
Saliba, George. 1985. “Solar Observations at Maragha observatory.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 16:113–122. Reprinted in Saliba 1994, 177–186.Google Scholar
Saliba, George. 1986. “The Determination of New Planetary Parameters at the Maragha Observatory.” Centaurus 29:pp. 249–271. Reprinted in Saliba 1994, 208–230.Google Scholar
Saliba, George. 1987. “Theory and Observation in Islamic Astronomy: The Work of Ibn al-Shāṭir of Damascus.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 18:35–43. Reprinted in Saliba 1994, 233–241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saliba, George. 1994. A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam. New York: New York University.Google Scholar
Saliba, George. 1996. “Arabic Planetary Theories after the Eleventh Century AD.”, In Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, edited by Rashed, Roshdi, 1:59–128. London–News York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Samsó, Julio. 1996. “Al-Bīrūnī in al-Andalus.” In From Baghdad to Barcelona, edited by Casulleras, J. and Samsó, Julio, 583–612. Barcelona: Universitat de Barcelona. Reprinted in Samsó 2007, Trace VIGoogle Scholar
Samsó, Julio. 2007. Astronomy and Astrology in al-Andalus and the Maghrib. Aldershot: Ashgate-Variorum.Google Scholar
Samsó, Julio, and Millás, E.. 1998. “The Computation of Planetary Longitudes in the Zīj of Ibn al-Banna.” Arabic Science and Philosophy 8:259–286. Reprinted in Samsó 2007, Trace VIII.Google Scholar
Sayılı, Aydın. [1960]1988. The Observatory in Islam, 2nd ed. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basimevi.Google Scholar
Sezgin, Fuat. 1978. Geschichte des arabischen Schrifttums, Band VI: Astronomie bis ca. 430 H. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Sheynin, Oscar B. 1973. “Mathematical Treatment of Astronomical Observations (A Historical Essay).” Archive for History of Exact Sciences 11:97–126.Google Scholar
Sheynin, Oscar B. 1992. “Al-Bīrūnī and the Mathematical Treatment of Observations.” Arabic Sciences and Philosophy 2:299–306.Google Scholar
Sheynin, Oscar B. 1993. “The Treatment of Observations in Early Astronomy.” Archive for History of Exact Sciences 46:153–192.Google Scholar
Simon, Jean-Louis, et al. 1994. “Numerical Expressions for Precession Formulae and Mean Elements for the Moon and the Planets.” Astronomy and Astrophysics 282:663–683.Google Scholar
The Súrya Siddhánta: A Textbook of Hindu Astronomy. [1860]1997. Edited by P. Gangooly, Translated into English by E. Burgess. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.Google Scholar
The Súrya Siddhánta: An Ancient System of Hindu Astronomy, followed by the Siddhánta Śiromani . [1861]1974. Translated into English by P.B. Deva Sastri and L. Wilkinson. Amsterdam: Philo Press.Google Scholar
Swerdlow, Noel M., and Neugebauer, Otto. 1984. Mathematical Astronomy in Copernicus's De Revolutionibus. New York–Berlin–Heidelberg–Tokyo: Springer-Verlag.Google Scholar
Toomer, Gerald J., ed. 1998. Ptolemy's Almagest. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Van Der Waerden, Bartel L. 1987a. “The Heliocentric System in Greek, Persian and Hindu Astronomy.” In From Deferent to Equant: A Volume of Studies on the History of Science of the Ancient and Medieval Near East in Honor of E. S. Kennedy, edited by Saliba, George and King, David A., 525–545. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 500.Google Scholar
Van Der Waerden, Bartel L. 1987b. “The Astronomical System of the Persian Tables II.” Centaurus 30:197–211.Google Scholar
Yabuuti, Kiyosi. 1997. “Islamic Astronomy in China during the Yuan and Ming Dynasties.” Translated into English and partially revised by B. van Dalen, Historia Scientiarum 7:11–43.into English and partially revised by B. van Dalen, Historia Scientiarum 7:11–43.Google Scholar
Abharī, Athīr al-Dīn. Al-Zīj al-Mulakhkhaṣ ‘alā al-raṣad al-‘Alā’ī;. MSS. K: Kolkata, National Library, Buhar, no. 347, U: Utrecht, University Library, no. 1442, F: Florence, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Or. 106/2.Google Scholar
Anon. (Abharī, Athīr al-Dīn?). Al-Zīj al-Shāmil. MSS. P: Iran, Parliament Library, no. 6422, F1: Florence, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Or. 106/1, F2: Florence, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Or. 95/2, D: Dublin, Chester Beatty Library, Arabic 4076, Pa: Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, arabe 2528.Google Scholar
Anon. (Abharī, Athīr al-Dīn?) (dedicated to Najm al-Dīn ‘Alī b. ‘Umar b. ‘Alī Dabīrān/al-Kātibī al-Qazwīnī). Kitāb fī ṣinā‘at al-majisṭī; (Book on the Art/Industry of the Almagest). MSS. P1: Iran, Parliament Library, no. 6195, P2: Iran, Parliament Library, no. 1440, N: Iran, National Library, no. 2607560, I: Istanbul, Süleymaniye, Ayasofia, no. 2583, Pa: Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, arabe 2515.Google Scholar
Ibn al-Fahhād: Farīd al-Dīn Abu al-Ḥasan ‘Alī b. ‘Abd al-Karīm al-Fahhād al-Shirwānī or al-Bākū’ī. Zīj al-‘Alā’ī;. MS. India, Salar Jung, no. H17.Google Scholar
Ibn al-Shāṭir, ‘Alā’ al-Dīn Abu ’l-Ḥasan ‘Alī b. Ibrāhīm b. Muḥammad al-Muṭa‘‘im al-Anṣārī. Al-Zīj al-Jadīd. MSS. K: Istanbul, Kandilli Observatory, no. 238, O: Oxford, Bodleian Library, no. Seld. A inf 30, D: Damascus, Asad National library, no. 3093; L1: Leiden, Universiteitsbibliotheek, no. Or. 65; L2: Leiden, Universiteitsbibliotheek, Or. 530; PR: Princeton, Princeton University Library, no. Yahuda 145.Google Scholar
Yūnus, Ibn, ‘Alī b. ‘Abd al-Raḥmān b. Aḥmad. Zīj al-Kabīr al-Ḥākimī;. MS. L: Leiden, Universiteitsbibliotheek, no. Or. 143, MS. O: Oxford, Bodleian Library, no. Hunt 331.Google Scholar
al-Kāshī, Jamshīd Ghiyāth al-Dīn. Khāqānī zīj. MS. IO: London: India Office, no. 430; P: Iran: Parliament Library, no. 6198.Google Scholar
al-Maghribī, Mūḥyī al-Dīn. Adwār al-anwār. MS. M: Iran, Mashhad, Holy Shrine Library, no. 332; MS. CB: Ireland, Dublin, Chester Beatty, no. 3665.Google Scholar
al-Maghribī, Mūḥyī al-Dīn. Talkhīṣ al-majisṭī;. MS. Leiden: Universiteitsbibliotheek, Or. 110.Google Scholar
al-Maghribī, Mūḥyī al-Dīn. Kitāb al-Zīj ‘Umdat al-ḥāsib wa ghunyat al-ṭālib. MS. M: Cairo: Egyptian National Library, no. MM 188.Google Scholar
Muḥammad b, Taqī al-Dīn. Ma‘rūf. Sidrat muntaha al-afkar fī malakūt al-falak al-dawwār (The Lotus Tree in the Seventh Heaven of Reflection). MS. K: Istanbul, Kandilli Observatory, no. 208/1 (up to f. 48v).Google Scholar
Al-Ṭūsī, Naṣīr al-Dīn. Īlkhānī zīj. MSS. C: University of California, Caro Minasian Collection, no. 1462; T: University of Tehran, Ḥikmat Collection, no. 165 + Suppl. P: Iran, Parliament Library, no. 6517 (Remark: The latter is not actually a separate manuscript, but contains 31 folios missing from MS T. The chapters and tables in MS. T are badly out of order, presumably owing to the folios having been bound in disorder), P: Iran, Parliament Library, no. 181, M1: Iran, Mashhad, Holy Shrine Library, no. 5332a; M2: Iran, Qum, Mar‘ashī Library, no. 13230.Google Scholar
Beg, Ulugh. Sulṭānī Zīj. MS. P1: Iran, Parliament Library, no. 72; MS. P2: Iran, Parliament Library, no. 6027.Google Scholar
Manṣūr, Yaḥyā b. Abī. Zīj al-mumtaḥan. MS. E: Madrid, Library of Escorial, no. árabe 927 (published in The verified astronomical tables for the caliph al-Ma'mūn, edited by Fuad Sezgin, with an introduction by Edward S. Kennedy. Frankfurt am Main: Institut für Geschichte der Arabisch-Islamischen Wissenschaften, 1986), MS. L: Leipzig, Universitätsbibliothek, no. Vollers 821.Google Scholar
Abbud, Fuad. 1962. “The Planetary Theory of Ibn al-Shāṭir: Reduction of the Geometric Models to Numerical Tables.” Isis 53:492–499.Google Scholar
Bearman, Peri, Bianquis, Th., Bosworth, C.E., van Donzel, E., and Heinrichs, W. P., 1960–2005. [EI 2:] Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed., 12 vols. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
al-Bīrūnī, Abū al-Rayḥān. 1954–1956. Al-Qānūn al-mas‘ūdī; (Mas‘ūdīc canons), 3 vols. Hyderabad: Osmania Bureau. MSS. F: Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, no. Ar. 6840, B: Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, no. Or. Oct. 275 = Ahlwardt 5667.Google Scholar
al-Bīrūnī, Abū al-Rayḥān. 1967. Taḥdīd nahayāt al-amākin li-taṣḥīḥ masāfāt al-masākin (Determination of the coordinates of positions for the correction of distances between cities). Translated into English by J. Ali. Beirut.Google Scholar
Brahmagupta. 1970. The Khaṇḍakhādyaka of Brahmagupta. Translated into English and edited by Bina Chatterjee. New Delhi: Bina Chatterjee.Google Scholar
Caussin de Perceval, J.-J.-A. 1804. “Le livre de la grande table hakémite, Observée par le Sheikh, . . ., ebn Iounis.” Notices et Extraits des Manuscrits de la Bibliothèque nationale 7:16–240.Google Scholar
Copernicus, Nicolaus. 1543. De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, Nuremberg. On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres. Translated into English by Charles Glenn Wallis. Annapolis: St John's College Bookstore, 1939. Reprinted in The Great Books of the Western World, 2nd edn, vol. 15. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 1990.Google Scholar
van Dalen, Benno. 2002a. “Islamic and Chinese Astronomy under the Mongols: A Little-Known Case of Transmission.” In From China to Paris: 2000 years transmission of mathematical ideas, edited by Dold-Samplonius, Y., 327–356. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner.Google Scholar
van Dalen, Benno. 2002b. “Islamic Astronomical Tables in China: The Sources for the Huihui Ii.” In History of Oriental Astronomy (Proceedings of the Joint Discussion 17 at the 23rd General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union, Organised by the Commission 41 (History of Astronomy), Held in Kyoto, August 25–26, 1997), edited by Ansari, Raza, 19–30. Dordrecht: Kluwer.Google Scholar
van Dalen, Benno. 2004. “The Zīj-i Naṣirī; by Maḥmūd ibn Umar: the earliest Indian Zij and its relation to the ‘Alā’ī Zīj .” In Studies in the history of the exact sciences in honour of David Pingree, edited by Burnett, Charles, 825–862. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Dorce, Carlos. 2002–2003. “The Tāj al-azyāj of Muḥyī al-Dīn al-Maghribī (d. 1283): Methods of Computation.” Suhayl 3:193–212.Google Scholar
Dorce, Carlos. 2003. El Tāŷ al-azyāŷ de Muḥyī al-Dīn al-Maghribī. Anuari de Filologia, Vol. 25, Secció B, Número 5. Barcelona: University of Barcelona.Google Scholar
Duke, Dennis. 2006. “Ancient Declinations and Precession.” DIO 13:26–34.Google Scholar
Gillespie, Charles Coulston, ed. 1970–1980. [DSB:] Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 16 vols. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Bernard R. 1985. The Astronomy of Levi ben Gerson (1288-1344), a Critical Edition of Chapters 1-20 with Translation and Commentary. New York: Springer-Verlag.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Bernard R. 1988. “A New Set of Fourteenth-Century Planetary Observations.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 132:371–399.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Bernard R. 1994. “Historical Perspectives on Copernicus's Account of Precession.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 25:189–197.Google Scholar
Hartner, Willy, and Schramm, M.. 1961. “Al-Bīrūnī and the Theory of the Solar Apogee: An Example of Originality in Arabic Science.” In Scientific Change. Historical Studies in the Intellectual, Social and Technical Conditions for Scientific Discovery and Technical Invention, from Antiquity to the Present. Symposium on the History of Science, University of Oxford 9–15 July 1961, edited by Crombie, A.C., 206–218. London: Heinemann.Google Scholar
Hockey, Thomas, ed. 2007. [BEA:] The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, Alexander. 2005. “In Order that we Should Not Ourselves Appear to be Adjusting our Estimates . . . to Make Them Fit Some Predetermined Amount.” In Wrong for the Right Reasons, edited by Buchwald, J. Z. and Franklin, A., 17–39. The Netherlands: Springer.Google Scholar
Kennedy, Edward Stewart. 1956. “A Survey of Islamic Astronomical Tables.” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, New Series 46:123–177.Google Scholar
Kennedy, Edward Stewart. 1958. “The Sasanian Astronomical Handbook Zīj-i Shāh and the Astrological Doctrine of “Transit” (Mamarr).” Journal of the American Oriental Society 78:246–262.Google Scholar
Kennedy, Edward Stewart. 1973. A Commentary upon Bīrūnī’s Kitāb Taḥdīd al-Amākin. Beirut: American University of Beirut.Google Scholar
Kennedy, Edward Stewart, and Roberts, Victor. 1959. “The Planetary Theory of Ibn al-Shāṭir.” Isis 50:227–235.Google Scholar
Kennedy, Edward Stewart, and Ghanem, I., eds. 1976. The Life and Work of Ibn al-Shāṭir: An Arab Astronomer of the Fourteenth Century. Aleppo: Institute for History of Arabic Science.Google Scholar
Kennedy, Edward Stewart, and Pingree, David, eds. 1981. The Book of the Reasons behind Astronomical Tables. New York: Scholars’ Facsimiles & Reprints.Google Scholar
King, David A. 1999. “Aspects of Fatimid Astronomy: From Hard-Core Mathematical Astronomy to Architectural Orientations in Cairo.” In L’Égypte Fatimide: son art et son histoire – Actes du colloqie organisé à Paris les 28, 29 et 30 mai 1998, edited by Barrucand, M., 497–517. Paris: Presses de l'Université de Paris-Sorbonne.Google Scholar
King, David A., and Gingerich, Owen. 1982. “Some Astronomical Observations from Thirteenth-Century Egypt.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 13:121–128.Google Scholar
Koertge, Noretta, ed. 2008. [NDSB:] New Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 8 vols. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons.Google Scholar
Kunitzsch, Paul. 1986. “The Star Catalogue Commonly Appended to the Alfonsine Tables.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 17:89–98. Reprinted in idem. 1989. The Arabs and the Stars, Trace XXII. Northampton: Variorum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maeyama, Yas. 1998. “Determination of the Sun's Orbit. Hipparchus, Ptolemy, al-Battânî, Copernicus, Tycho Brahe.” Archive for History of Exact Sciences 53:1–49.Google Scholar
Mancha, José Luis. 1998. “Heuristic Reasoning: Approximation Procedures in Levi ben Gerson's Astronomy.” Archives for History of Exact Sciences 52:13–50.Google Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad. 2013a. “Limitations of Methods: the Accuracy of the Values Measured for the Earth's/Sun's Orbital Elements in the Middle East, A.D. 800 and 1500.” Journal for the History of Astronomy Part1: 44 (3):313–336, Part 2: 44(4):389–411.Google Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad. 2013b. “Historical Annular Solar Eclipses.” Journal of British Astronomical Association 123:33–36.Google Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad. 2013c. “Wābkanawī’s Prediction and Calculations of the Annular Solar Eclipse of 30 January 1283.” Historia Mathematica 40:235–261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad. 2013d. “Bīrūnī’s Four-Point Method for Determining the Eccentricity and the Direction of the Apsidal Lines of the Superior Planets.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 44:207–211.Google Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad. 2014a. “A Case Study of How Natural Phenomena Were Justified in Medieval Science: The Situation of Annular Eclipses in Medieval Astronomy.” Science in Context 27:33–47.Google Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad. 2014b. “Ptolemaic Eccentricity of the Superior Planets in the Medieval Islamic Period.” In Scientific Cosmopolitanism and Local Cultures: Religions, Ideologies, Societies; Proceedings of 5th International Conference of the European Society for the History of Science (Athens, 1–3 November 2012), edited by Katsiampoura, Gianna, 23–30. Athens: National Hellenic Research Foundation.Google Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad. 2014c. “Muḥyī al-Dīn al-Maghribī’s lunar measurements at the Maragha observatory.” Archive for History of Exact Sciences 68:67–120.Google Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad. 2015. “Annular eclipses and considerations about solar and lunar angular diameters in medieval astronomy.” In New Insights from Recent Studies in Historical Astronomy: Following in the Footsteps of F. Richard Stephenson, edited by Orchiston, Wayne et al., 119–142. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad. 2016a. “A Forgotten Solar Model.” Archive for History of Exact Sciences 70:267–291.Google Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad. 2016b. “Planetary Latitudes in Medieval Islamic Astronomy: An Analysis of the non-Ptolemaic Latitude Parameter Values in the Maragha and Samarqand Astronomical Traditions.” Archive for History of Exact Sciences 70:513–541.Google Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad. 2016c. “A Medieval Bright Star Table: The Non-Ptolemaic Star Table in the Īlkhānī Zīj .” Journal for the History of Astronomy 47:294–316.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad. 2016d. “A Revision of the Mumtaḥan and Ibn al-A‘lam's star tables.” Suhayl 15: to appear.Google Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad, and Steele, John. 2015. “Solar and Lunar Observations at Istanbul in the 1570s.” Archive for History of Exact Sciences 69:343–362.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mozaffari, S. Mohammad and Zotti, Georg. 2013. “The Observational Instruments at the Maragha Observatory after AD 1300.” Suhayl 12:45–179.Google Scholar
Nallino, Carlo Alfonso (ed.). [1899–1907] 1969. Al-Battani sive Albatenii Opus Astronomicum. Publicazioni del Reale osservatorio di Brera in Milano, n. XL, pte. I–III. Milan: Mediolani Insubrum. The 1969 Reprint of Nallino's edition: Frankfurt: Minerva.Google Scholar
Neugebauer, Otto. 1962. “Thabit ben Qurra 'On the Solar Year' and 'On the Motion of the Eighth Sphere'.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 106:264–299.Google Scholar
Neugebauer, Otto. 1975. A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy. Berlin-Heidelberg-New\sYork: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neugebauer, Otto, and Pingree, David. 1970–1971. The Pañcasiddhāntikā of Varāhamihira, 2 vols. Copenhagen: Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.Google Scholar
Newton, Robert Russell. 1973. “The Authenticity of Ptolemy's Parallax Data—-Part 1.” Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 14:367–388.Google Scholar
Pannekoek, Anton. 1995. “Ptolemy's precession.” Vistas in Astronomy 1:60–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pedersen, Olaf. 1974. A Survey of Almagest. Odense: Odense University Press. With annotation and new commentary by Alexander Jones, New York: Springer, 2010.Google Scholar
Pingree, David. 1964. “Gregory Chioniades and Palaeologan Astronomy.” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 18:133–160.Google Scholar
Pingree, David. 1965. “The Persian “Observation” of the Solar Apogee in ca. A.D. 450.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 24:334–336.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pingree, David. 1968. “The Fragments of the Works of Ya‘qūb Ibn Ṭāriq.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 27:97–125.Google Scholar
Pingree, David. 1970. “The Fragments of the Works of Al-Fazārī.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 29:103–123.Google Scholar
Pingree, David. 1972. “Precession and Trepidation in Indian Astronomy before A.D. 1200.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 3:27–35.Google Scholar
Pingree, David. 1976. “The Recovery of Early Greek Astronomy from India.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 7:109–123.Google Scholar
Pingree, David (ed.). 1985–1986. Astronomical Works of Gregory Chioniades, Part 1: Zīj al-‘Alā’ī;, 2 vols. Amsterdam: Gieben.Google Scholar
Roberts, Victor. 1957. “The Solar and Lunar Theory of Ibn ash-Shāṭir, a pre-Copernican Copernican Model.” Isis 48:428–432.Google Scholar
Roberts, Victor. 1966. “The planetary theory of Ibn al-Shāṭir: Latitudes of the Planets.” Isis 57:208–219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenfeld, Boris A., and İhsanoğlu, Ekmeleddin. 2003. Mathematicians, Astronomers, and Other Scholars of Islamic Civilization and their Works (7th–19th c.). Istanbul: IRCICA.Google Scholar
Saliba, George. 1983. “An Observational Notebook of a Thirteenth-Century Astronomer.” Isis 74:388–401. Reprinted in Saliba 1994, 163–176.Google Scholar
Saliba, George. 1985. “Solar Observations at Maragha observatory.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 16:113–122. Reprinted in Saliba 1994, 177–186.Google Scholar
Saliba, George. 1986. “The Determination of New Planetary Parameters at the Maragha Observatory.” Centaurus 29:pp. 249–271. Reprinted in Saliba 1994, 208–230.Google Scholar
Saliba, George. 1987. “Theory and Observation in Islamic Astronomy: The Work of Ibn al-Shāṭir of Damascus.” Journal for the History of Astronomy 18:35–43. Reprinted in Saliba 1994, 233–241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saliba, George. 1994. A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam. New York: New York University.Google Scholar
Saliba, George. 1996. “Arabic Planetary Theories after the Eleventh Century AD.”, In Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, edited by Rashed, Roshdi, 1:59–128. London–News York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Samsó, Julio. 1996. “Al-Bīrūnī in al-Andalus.” In From Baghdad to Barcelona, edited by Casulleras, J. and Samsó, Julio, 583–612. Barcelona: Universitat de Barcelona. Reprinted in Samsó 2007, Trace VIGoogle Scholar
Samsó, Julio. 2007. Astronomy and Astrology in al-Andalus and the Maghrib. Aldershot: Ashgate-Variorum.Google Scholar
Samsó, Julio, and Millás, E.. 1998. “The Computation of Planetary Longitudes in the Zīj of Ibn al-Banna.” Arabic Science and Philosophy 8:259–286. Reprinted in Samsó 2007, Trace VIII.Google Scholar
Sayılı, Aydın. [1960]1988. The Observatory in Islam, 2nd ed. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basimevi.Google Scholar
Sezgin, Fuat. 1978. Geschichte des arabischen Schrifttums, Band VI: Astronomie bis ca. 430 H. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Sheynin, Oscar B. 1973. “Mathematical Treatment of Astronomical Observations (A Historical Essay).” Archive for History of Exact Sciences 11:97–126.Google Scholar
Sheynin, Oscar B. 1992. “Al-Bīrūnī and the Mathematical Treatment of Observations.” Arabic Sciences and Philosophy 2:299–306.Google Scholar
Sheynin, Oscar B. 1993. “The Treatment of Observations in Early Astronomy.” Archive for History of Exact Sciences 46:153–192.Google Scholar
Simon, Jean-Louis, et al. 1994. “Numerical Expressions for Precession Formulae and Mean Elements for the Moon and the Planets.” Astronomy and Astrophysics 282:663–683.Google Scholar
The Súrya Siddhánta: A Textbook of Hindu Astronomy. [1860]1997. Edited by P. Gangooly, Translated into English by E. Burgess. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.Google Scholar
The Súrya Siddhánta: An Ancient System of Hindu Astronomy, followed by the Siddhánta Śiromani . [1861]1974. Translated into English by P.B. Deva Sastri and L. Wilkinson. Amsterdam: Philo Press.Google Scholar
Swerdlow, Noel M., and Neugebauer, Otto. 1984. Mathematical Astronomy in Copernicus's De Revolutionibus. New York–Berlin–Heidelberg–Tokyo: Springer-Verlag.Google Scholar
Toomer, Gerald J., ed. 1998. Ptolemy's Almagest. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Van Der Waerden, Bartel L. 1987a. “The Heliocentric System in Greek, Persian and Hindu Astronomy.” In From Deferent to Equant: A Volume of Studies on the History of Science of the Ancient and Medieval Near East in Honor of E. S. Kennedy, edited by Saliba, George and King, David A., 525–545. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 500.Google Scholar
Van Der Waerden, Bartel L. 1987b. “The Astronomical System of the Persian Tables II.” Centaurus 30:197–211.Google Scholar
Yabuuti, Kiyosi. 1997. “Islamic Astronomy in China during the Yuan and Ming Dynasties.” Translated into English and partially revised by B. van Dalen, Historia Scientiarum 7:11–43.into English and partially revised by B. van Dalen, Historia Scientiarum 7:11–43.Google Scholar