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Hans Egede (1686–1758) and the alchemical tradition in Denmark-Norway
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 12 December 2019
Argument
Hans Egede (1686–1758), the famous missionary and natural historian in Greenland, was one of very few known Norwegian alchemists. This article seeks to place Egede’s alchemy in the context of the European alchemical tradition by identifying his sources in alchemical literature. Through an analysis of Egede’s account of an alchemical experiment performed by him in 1727, Ole Borch, Johann Joachim Becher, and Michael Sendivogius are identified as his main sources. Egede’s procedure and choice of materials are shown to be based on texts by these authors. The article argues that Egede’s alchemical interest was more pervasive than hitherto understood, through the demonstration of connections between his alchemical studies and his work as a natural historian. Further it is argued that Egede’s alchemy was not unique or anachronistic but exemplifies the continued belief in and practice of transmutational alchemy in Denmark-Norway in the early decades of the eighteenth century.
Keywords
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- Research Article
- Information
- Copyright
- © Cambridge University Press 2019
References
References
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Kongespeilet [King’s mirror]. [c.1250–1260] 1947. Translated by Brøgger, A.W. Oslo: Aschehoug.Google Scholar
Barfoed, Niels Aage. 1950. Hans Egede Grønlands Apostel [Hans Egede Greenland’s Apostle]. Stavanger: Misjonsselskapets Forlag.Google Scholar
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Brenna, Brita. 2011. “Clergymen Abiding in the Fields: The Making of the Naturalist Observer in Eighteenth-Century Norwegian Natural History.” Science in Context 24(2): 143–166.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
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Dahl, Gina. 2010. Book Collections of Clerics in Norway, 1650–1750. Leiden: Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dahl, Gina. 2005. “Paracelsianism in Norway.” In Western Esoterism in Scandinavia, edited by Bogdan, Henrik and Hammer, Olav, 417–424. Brill: Leiden.Google Scholar
Danneskiold-Samsøe, Jakob. 2006. “Renæssancekemiens forestillingsverden.” [The conceptual world of Renaissance chemistry]. In Ole Borch (1626–1690): En dansk renæssancekemiker [Ole Borch (1626–1690): A Danish Renaissance chemist], edited by Riis Larsen, Børge, 21–49. Dansk Selskab for Historisk Kemi: Historisk-kemiske skrifter 16.Google Scholar
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Fanning, Philip Ashley. 2009. Isaac Newton and the Transmutation of Alchemy: An Alternate View of the Scientific Revolution. Berkeley/California: North Atlantic Books.Google Scholar
Fenger, Hans Mathius. 1879. “Hans Egedes og den grønlandske Missions Historie 1721–1760.” [History of Hans Egede and the Greenlandic Mission] PhD. diss. Copenhagen.Google Scholar
Fenger, Nils. 1971. Palasé Hans Egede i Grønland [Palasé Hans Egede in Greenland]. Copenhagen: Wøldike.Google Scholar
Figala, Karin, and Priesner, Claus, eds. 1998. Lexicon einer hermetischen Wissenschaft. Munich: C.H. Beck’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung.Google Scholar
Fink-Jensen, Morten. 2016. “Alchemy in Denmark.” In Western Esoterism in Scandinavia, edited by Bogdan, Henrik and Hammer, Olav, 11–17. Brill: Leiden.Google Scholar
Fink-Jensen, Morten. 2006. “Ole Borch: Et biografisk rids.” [Ole Borch: A biographical outline] In Ole Borch (1626–1690): En dansk renæssancekemiker [Ole Borch (1626–1690): A Danish Renaissance chemist], edited by Riis Larsen, Børge, 11–20. Dansk Selskab for Historisk Kemi: Historisk-kemiske skrifter 16.Google Scholar
Fink-Jensen, Morten. 2000. “Ole Borch mellem naturlig magi og moderne naturvidenskab.” [Ole Borch between natural magic and modern natural science] In Historisk Tidsskrift 100(1):35–67.Google Scholar
Fink-Jensen, Morten. 2002. “Paracelsus og Danmark: Medicin og teologi i 1500- og 1600-tallet.” [Paracelsus and Denmark: Medicine and theology in the 1500s and 1600s] In Mentalitet og historie: Om fortidige forestillingsverdener [Mentality and history: About conceptual worlds of the past], edited by Appel, Charlotte, Henningsen, Peter, Hybel, Nils, and Wittendorff, Alex, 95–118. Ebeltoft: Skippershoved.Google Scholar
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Fors, Hjalmar. 2015. The Limits of Matter: Chemistry, Mining, and Enlightenment. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Forshaw, Peter Jonathan. 2013. “‘Chemistry, that Starry Science’: Early Modern Conjunctions of Astrology and Alchemy” in Sky and Symbol, edited by Greene, Liz and Campion, Nicholas, 143–184. Lampeter: Sophia Centre Press.Google Scholar
Furuset, Kjell. 2006. “En alkymistisk tolkning av Hans Egedes drømmefabel”. [An alchemical interpretation of Hans Egede’s dream fable] In Tidsskriftet Grønland 6:312–320.Google Scholar
Gant, Erik. 1994. “Omvendelse: Om Hans Egede og det store værk.” [Conversion: About Hans Egede and the great work] In Tidsskriftet Grønland 7:227–245.Google Scholar
Gulløv, Hans Christian. 1978. Kampen om sjælene: Grønland og Oplysningstiden [The battle for the souls: Greenland and the Age of Enlightenment]. Copenhagen: Nationalmuseet.Google Scholar
Gulløv, Hans Christian, and Kapel, Hans. 1979. Haabetz Colonie 1721–1728: A Historical-Archaelogical Investigation of the Danish-Norwegian Colonization of Greenland. Copenhagen: Nationalmuseet.Google Scholar
Gulløv, Hans Christian and Kapel, Hans. 1971. Håbets koloni: Hans Egedes første syv år på Grønland [The Colony of Hope: Hans Egede’s first seven years in Greenland]. Copenhagen: Nationalmuseet.Google Scholar
Harr, Karl Erik. 2008. Is og ild: I Hans Egedes kjølvann [Ice and fire: In Hans Egede’s wake]. Oslo: Verbum.Google Scholar
Hiortdahl, Thorstein. 1905. “Bidrag til kemiens historie i Norge”. [Contribution to the history of chemistry in Norway] In Nyt Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne 43:339–366.Google Scholar
Kragh, Helge. 2006. “Alkymi og hermetisk kemi fra Severinus til Borch.” [Alchemy and hermetic chemistry from Severinus to Borch] In Renessansens verden [The world of the Renaissance], edited by Høiris, Ole and Vellev, Jens, 21–44. Aarhus: Aarhus universitetsforlag.Google Scholar
Kragh, Helge. 2002. “Hans Egede – Apostel og alkymist.” [Hans Egede – Apostle and alchemist] In Dansk Kemi 83(12):32–33.Google Scholar
Larsen, Børge Riis, ed. 2006. Ole Borch (1626–1690): En dansk renæssancekemiker. [Ole Borch (1626–1690): A Danish Renaissance chemist]. Dansk Selskab for Historisk Kemi: Historisk-kemiske skrifter 16.Google Scholar
Lund, Jacob Johan. 1778. Første Missionaire på Grønland, Biskop Hans Egedes Levnet [First Missionary in Greenland, the Life of Bishop Hans Egede]. Copenhagen, Det Kongelig Waysenhuses Bogtrykkerie.Google Scholar
Newman, William R. 2003. Gehennical Fire: The Lives of George Starkey. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Nielsen, Hans Toftlund, and Pedersen, Fritz Saaby. 2006. “Nogle bemærkelsesværdige eksempler på selvantændelser: Først observeret af Ole Borch.” [Some remarkable examples of self-ignitions: First observed by Ole Borch] In Ole Borch (1626–1690): En dansk renæssancekemiker [Ole Borch (1626–1690): A Danish Renaissance chemist], edited by Riis Larsen, Børge, 65–74. Dansk Selskab for Historisk Kemi: Historisk-kemiske skrifter 16.Google Scholar
Ostermann, Hother Bertel Simon. 1935. Dagbøker av nordmenn på Grønland før 1814 [Diaries by Norwegians in Greenland before 1814]. In Norges Svalbard- og Ishavs-Undersøkelser. Meddelelser 33. Oslo: Jacob Dybwad.Google Scholar
Powers, John C. 2012. Inventing Chemistry: Herman Boerhaave and the Reform of the Chemical Arts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Priesner, Claus. 1998. “Grasshof(f), Johannes”. In Alchemie: Lexicon Einer Hermetischen Wissenschaft, edited by Figala, Karin and Priesner, Claus, 165–166. Munich: C.H. Beck’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung.Google Scholar
Principe, Lawrence M. 1998. The Aspiring Adept: Robert Boyle and his Alchemical Quest: Including Boyle’s “Lost” Dialogue on the Transmutation of Metals. Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Principe, Lawrence M. 2013. The Secrets of Alchemy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Shackelford, Jole. 2004. A Philosophical Path for Paracelsian Medicine: The Ideas, Intellectual Context, and Influence of Petrus Severinus: 1540–1602. University of Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press.Google Scholar
Sollied, Peter Ravn, and Solberg, Ole. 1932. Bergenserne på Grønland i det 18. Århundre. 1: Håbets Koloni: Anlegg og Beseiling 1721–1726 [The people from Bergen in Greenland in the 18. Century. In: The Colony of Hope: Facilities and Ship Traffic 1721–1726]. Oslo: Oslo Etnografiske Museum.Google Scholar
Vitruvius Pollio, Marcus. [c.30–15 BC] 1914. Ten Books on Architecture. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Becher, Johann Joachim. [1664] 1716. Oedipus Chymicus seu Institutiones Chymicæ. Frankfurt am Main: Joh. Maximilianum van Sande.Google Scholar
Bobé, Louis, ed. [1738 and 1741] 1925. Relationer fra Grønland 1721–36 og Det gamle Grønlands ny Perlustration, 1741 [Relations from Greenland 1721–36, and The new Perlustration of old Greenland, 1741]. Meddelelser om Grønland 54.Google Scholar
Borch, Ole. 1696. Conspectus Scriptorum Chemicorum Illustrorum: Libellus Posthumus Cui Profixa Historia Vito Ipsius Ab Ipso Conscripta. Copenhagen: Samuel Garmann.Google Scholar
Dastin, John. Undated facsimile [1652]. “Dastin’s Dream.” In Theatrum Chemicum Britannicum, edited by Ashmole, Elias, 257–268. Montana: Kessinger Publishing Company.Google Scholar
Friis, Peder Claussøn. 1632. Norriges Oc Omliggende Øers sandfærdige Bescriffvelse / Indholdendis hvis vært er at vide / baade om Landsens oc Indbyggernis Leilighed oc vilkor / saavel i fordum tid / som nu i vore Dage; Korteligen tilsammen fattit Aff D. Peder Claussøn / Sognepræst i Undal [The truthful Description of Norway And Surrounding Islands / Containing what is worth knowing / about the Situation and conditions of both the Country and the Inhabitants / in past time as well / as now in our Days; Briefly put together By Dr. Peder Claussøn / Parish priest in Undal]. Copenhagen, Melchior Marzan.Google Scholar
Newman, William R. 1991. “Summa Perfectionis” of Pseudo-Geber: A Critical Edition, Translation and Study. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Roth-Scholtz, Friedrich, ed. 1717. Johann Joachim Bechers Chymischer Rosen-Garten: Samt Einer Vorrede Und Kurtz Gefassten Lebens-Beschreibung Herrn D. Bechers. Nuremberg: Johann Daniel Tauber seel. Erben.Google Scholar
Roth-Scholtz, Friedrich, ed. 1718a. Michael Sendivogii Chymische Schriften: Derinnen Gar Deutlich Von Dem Ursprung, Bereit- Und Vollendung Des Gebenedeiten Steins Der Weisen Gehandelt Wird. Nuremberg: Johann Daniel Tauber seel. Erben.Google Scholar
Roth-Scholtz, Friedrich. 1718b. Vor-Bericht An den Kunst-begierigen Leser. In Michael Sendivogii Chymische Schriften: Derinnen Gar Deutlich Von Dem Ursprung, Bereit- Und Vollendung Des Gebenedeiten Steins Der Weisen Gehandelt Wird, edited by Roth-Scholtz, Friedrich, 1–44. Nuremberg: Johann Daniel Tauber seel. Erben.Google Scholar
Sendivogius, Michael. [1604] 1628. Novum lumen chymicum, e naturae fonte et manuali experientia depromptum. Geneva: Ioan. de Tournes.Google Scholar
Sendivogius, Michael. [1607] 1718a. Vom Mercurio. Philosophisches Gespräch zwischen dem Mercurio, einem Alchymisten, und der Natur gehalten. In Michael Sendivogii Chymische Schriften: Derinnen Gar Deutlich Von Dem Ursprung, Bereit- Und Vollendung Des Gebenedeiten Steins Der Weisen Gehandelt Wird, edited by Roth-Scholtz, Friedrich, 69–92. Nuremberg: Johann Daniel Tauber seel. Erben.Google Scholar
Sendivogius, Michael. [1616] 1718b. Vom Schwefel. Ein Philosophischer Tractat, von dem andern Anfang der naturlichen Dinge, dem Schwefel. In Michael Sendivogii Chymische Schriften: Derinnen Gar Deutlich Von Dem Ursprung, Bereit- Und Vollendung Des Gebenedeiten Steins Der Weisen Gehandelt Wird, edited by Roth-Scholtz, Friedrich, 93–192. Nuremberg: Johann Daniel Tauber seel. Erben.Google Scholar
Sendivogius, Michael. [1604] 1718c. Zwölff Tractatlein von dem Stein der Weisen. In Michael Sendivogii Chymische Schriften: Derinnen Gar Deutlich Von Dem Ursprung, Bereit- Und Vollendung Des Gebenedeiten Steins Der Weisen Gehandelt Wird, edited by Roth-Scholtz, Friedrich, 1–68. Nuremberg: Johann Daniel Tauber seel. Erben.Google Scholar
Sundt, Eilert, ed. 1860. Egedes Dagbog i Udtog [Egede’s Diary in Excerpts]. Christiania: Selskabet for Folkeoplysningens Fremme. P.T. Mallings Bogtrykkeri.Google Scholar
Trevisanus, Bernard. 1659. De alchemia liber [De chymico miraculo]. In Theatrum Chemicum vol. 1, edited by Zetzner, Lazarus, 683–709. Strasbourg: Heredum Eberh. Zetzneri.Google Scholar
Vitruvius Pollio, Marcus. [c.30–15 BC] 1914. Ten Books on Architecture. Translated by Morris Hicky Morgan. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Kongespeilet [King’s mirror]. [c.1250–1260] 1947. Translated by Brøgger, A.W. Oslo: Aschehoug.Google Scholar
Barfoed, Niels Aage. 1950. Hans Egede Grønlands Apostel [Hans Egede Greenland’s Apostle]. Stavanger: Misjonsselskapets Forlag.Google Scholar
Bobé, Louis. 1944. Hans Egede Grønlands Missionær og Kolonisator [Hans Egede Greenland’s Missionary and Coloniser]. In Meddelelser om Grønland 129:1.Google Scholar
Brenna, Brita. 2011. “Clergymen Abiding in the Fields: The Making of the Naturalist Observer in Eighteenth-Century Norwegian Natural History.” Science in Context 24(2): 143–166.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dahl, Gina. 2016. “Alchemy in Norway”. In Western Esoterism in Scandinavia, edited by Bogdan, Henrik and Hammer, Olav, 25–32. Brill: Leiden.Google Scholar
Dahl, Gina. 2010. Book Collections of Clerics in Norway, 1650–1750. Leiden: Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dahl, Gina. 2005. “Paracelsianism in Norway.” In Western Esoterism in Scandinavia, edited by Bogdan, Henrik and Hammer, Olav, 417–424. Brill: Leiden.Google Scholar
Danneskiold-Samsøe, Jakob. 2006. “Renæssancekemiens forestillingsverden.” [The conceptual world of Renaissance chemistry]. In Ole Borch (1626–1690): En dansk renæssancekemiker [Ole Borch (1626–1690): A Danish Renaissance chemist], edited by Riis Larsen, Børge, 21–49. Dansk Selskab for Historisk Kemi: Historisk-kemiske skrifter 16.Google Scholar
Debus, Allen G. 1991. The French Paracelsians: The Chemical Challenge to Medical and Scientific Tradition in Early Modern France. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Fanning, Philip Ashley. 2009. Isaac Newton and the Transmutation of Alchemy: An Alternate View of the Scientific Revolution. Berkeley/California: North Atlantic Books.Google Scholar
Fenger, Hans Mathius. 1879. “Hans Egedes og den grønlandske Missions Historie 1721–1760.” [History of Hans Egede and the Greenlandic Mission] PhD. diss. Copenhagen.Google Scholar
Fenger, Nils. 1971. Palasé Hans Egede i Grønland [Palasé Hans Egede in Greenland]. Copenhagen: Wøldike.Google Scholar
Figala, Karin, and Priesner, Claus, eds. 1998. Lexicon einer hermetischen Wissenschaft. Munich: C.H. Beck’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung.Google Scholar
Fink-Jensen, Morten. 2016. “Alchemy in Denmark.” In Western Esoterism in Scandinavia, edited by Bogdan, Henrik and Hammer, Olav, 11–17. Brill: Leiden.Google Scholar
Fink-Jensen, Morten. 2006. “Ole Borch: Et biografisk rids.” [Ole Borch: A biographical outline] In Ole Borch (1626–1690): En dansk renæssancekemiker [Ole Borch (1626–1690): A Danish Renaissance chemist], edited by Riis Larsen, Børge, 11–20. Dansk Selskab for Historisk Kemi: Historisk-kemiske skrifter 16.Google Scholar
Fink-Jensen, Morten. 2000. “Ole Borch mellem naturlig magi og moderne naturvidenskab.” [Ole Borch between natural magic and modern natural science] In Historisk Tidsskrift 100(1):35–67.Google Scholar
Fink-Jensen, Morten. 2002. “Paracelsus og Danmark: Medicin og teologi i 1500- og 1600-tallet.” [Paracelsus and Denmark: Medicine and theology in the 1500s and 1600s] In Mentalitet og historie: Om fortidige forestillingsverdener [Mentality and history: About conceptual worlds of the past], edited by Appel, Charlotte, Henningsen, Peter, Hybel, Nils, and Wittendorff, Alex, 95–118. Ebeltoft: Skippershoved.Google Scholar
Flood, John L. 2006. Poets Laureate in the Holy Roman Empire: A Bio-bibliographical Handbook, vol. III. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fors, Hjalmar. 2015. The Limits of Matter: Chemistry, Mining, and Enlightenment. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Forshaw, Peter Jonathan. 2013. “‘Chemistry, that Starry Science’: Early Modern Conjunctions of Astrology and Alchemy” in Sky and Symbol, edited by Greene, Liz and Campion, Nicholas, 143–184. Lampeter: Sophia Centre Press.Google Scholar
Furuset, Kjell. 2006. “En alkymistisk tolkning av Hans Egedes drømmefabel”. [An alchemical interpretation of Hans Egede’s dream fable] In Tidsskriftet Grønland 6:312–320.Google Scholar
Gant, Erik. 1994. “Omvendelse: Om Hans Egede og det store værk.” [Conversion: About Hans Egede and the great work] In Tidsskriftet Grønland 7:227–245.Google Scholar
Gulløv, Hans Christian. 1978. Kampen om sjælene: Grønland og Oplysningstiden [The battle for the souls: Greenland and the Age of Enlightenment]. Copenhagen: Nationalmuseet.Google Scholar
Gulløv, Hans Christian, and Kapel, Hans. 1979. Haabetz Colonie 1721–1728: A Historical-Archaelogical Investigation of the Danish-Norwegian Colonization of Greenland. Copenhagen: Nationalmuseet.Google Scholar
Gulløv, Hans Christian and Kapel, Hans. 1971. Håbets koloni: Hans Egedes første syv år på Grønland [The Colony of Hope: Hans Egede’s first seven years in Greenland]. Copenhagen: Nationalmuseet.Google Scholar
Harr, Karl Erik. 2008. Is og ild: I Hans Egedes kjølvann [Ice and fire: In Hans Egede’s wake]. Oslo: Verbum.Google Scholar
Hiortdahl, Thorstein. 1905. “Bidrag til kemiens historie i Norge”. [Contribution to the history of chemistry in Norway] In Nyt Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne 43:339–366.Google Scholar
Kragh, Helge. 2006. “Alkymi og hermetisk kemi fra Severinus til Borch.” [Alchemy and hermetic chemistry from Severinus to Borch] In Renessansens verden [The world of the Renaissance], edited by Høiris, Ole and Vellev, Jens, 21–44. Aarhus: Aarhus universitetsforlag.Google Scholar
Kragh, Helge. 2002. “Hans Egede – Apostel og alkymist.” [Hans Egede – Apostle and alchemist] In Dansk Kemi 83(12):32–33.Google Scholar
Larsen, Børge Riis, ed. 2006. Ole Borch (1626–1690): En dansk renæssancekemiker. [Ole Borch (1626–1690): A Danish Renaissance chemist]. Dansk Selskab for Historisk Kemi: Historisk-kemiske skrifter 16.Google Scholar
Lund, Jacob Johan. 1778. Første Missionaire på Grønland, Biskop Hans Egedes Levnet [First Missionary in Greenland, the Life of Bishop Hans Egede]. Copenhagen, Det Kongelig Waysenhuses Bogtrykkerie.Google Scholar
Newman, William R. 2003. Gehennical Fire: The Lives of George Starkey. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Nielsen, Hans Toftlund, and Pedersen, Fritz Saaby. 2006. “Nogle bemærkelsesværdige eksempler på selvantændelser: Først observeret af Ole Borch.” [Some remarkable examples of self-ignitions: First observed by Ole Borch] In Ole Borch (1626–1690): En dansk renæssancekemiker [Ole Borch (1626–1690): A Danish Renaissance chemist], edited by Riis Larsen, Børge, 65–74. Dansk Selskab for Historisk Kemi: Historisk-kemiske skrifter 16.Google Scholar
Ostermann, Hother Bertel Simon. 1935. Dagbøker av nordmenn på Grønland før 1814 [Diaries by Norwegians in Greenland before 1814]. In Norges Svalbard- og Ishavs-Undersøkelser. Meddelelser 33. Oslo: Jacob Dybwad.Google Scholar
Powers, John C. 2012. Inventing Chemistry: Herman Boerhaave and the Reform of the Chemical Arts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Priesner, Claus. 1998. “Grasshof(f), Johannes”. In Alchemie: Lexicon Einer Hermetischen Wissenschaft, edited by Figala, Karin and Priesner, Claus, 165–166. Munich: C.H. Beck’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung.Google Scholar
Principe, Lawrence M. 1998. The Aspiring Adept: Robert Boyle and his Alchemical Quest: Including Boyle’s “Lost” Dialogue on the Transmutation of Metals. Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Principe, Lawrence M. 2013. The Secrets of Alchemy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Shackelford, Jole. 2004. A Philosophical Path for Paracelsian Medicine: The Ideas, Intellectual Context, and Influence of Petrus Severinus: 1540–1602. University of Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press.Google Scholar
Sollied, Peter Ravn, and Solberg, Ole. 1932. Bergenserne på Grønland i det 18. Århundre. 1: Håbets Koloni: Anlegg og Beseiling 1721–1726 [The people from Bergen in Greenland in the 18. Century. In: The Colony of Hope: Facilities and Ship Traffic 1721–1726]. Oslo: Oslo Etnografiske Museum.Google Scholar
Vitruvius Pollio, Marcus. [c.30–15 BC] 1914. Ten Books on Architecture. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar