1 “A Brief Account of the Shanghai Branch of the Academia Sinica,” CAS Shanghai Branch Historical Archives, CAS General Office, no. 1, 1933.

2 “A Draft on the Establishment of the People's Academy of Sciences,” CAS Archives, CAS General Office, no. 7, 1950.

3 “Brief Reports on the CAS's Latest Situation,” CAS Archives, CAS General Office, no. 2, 1950.

4 “Instructions Given to Various Sectors by the Government Administration Council of the Central People's Government of the People's Republic of China for Enhancing the Contact Between the CAS and Industrial, Agricultural, Public Health, Educational and National Defense Sectors, 5 March 1951,” A Collection of CAS Data, 1949–1954, compiled by the CAS General Office, p. 35.

5 “CAS's Working Report of 1950,” CAS Archives, CAS General Office, no. 3, 1950.

6 “The Education of High-Ranking Intellectuals Newly Admitted to the Party Should be Enhanced,” CAS Archives, Party, 1952.

7 When the Korean War broke out in the early 1950s, China and the United States were the principal belligerents. There was a political movement in China against obsession with the United States, whether Americophilia or Americophobia.

8 “Findings Report on the Ideological Situation of Research Personnel in CAS Shanghai Branch, 28 March 1952,” CAS Shanghai Branch Historical Archives.

9 Guo Moruo: “The Strive for the Self-Transformation of Scientific Workers and the Improvement of Scientific Research,” A Collection of CAS Data, 1949–1954, p. 15.

10 “The Party Central Committee's Instructions in Reply to the East China Bureau's Propaganda Department on Problems of the Guidelines for Carrying Out Ideological Remolding in the CAS," CAS Archives, Party, 1952.

11 Data retrieved from A Collection of CAS Data 1949–1954, pp. 267–76.

12 “Opinions on the Organization of a National Academy of Sciences”, CAS Archives, CAS General Office, no. 1,1950.

13 “Summary of the Symposium on the Exchange of Experiences in the CAS's Learning of the Advanced Science of the Soviet Union,” A Collection of CAS Data, 1949–1954, p. 242.Google Scholar

14 “Restricted Data of CAS Cadre Department” (unpublished), chap. 4, “Section on cadres”.

15 “The Soviet Union's Great Help and Its Effects on Our Country's Scientific Undertakings,' CAS Annual Report, 1957, compiled by the CAS General Office, p. 271.Google Scholar

16 Ibid., p. 269.

17 “Guo Moruo's opening address at the inaugural meeting of the First General Assembly of Division Members, 1 June 1955,” CAS Annual Report, 1955, compiled by the CAS academic secretariat, p. 1.

18 “CAS Report on the Work of Visiting Delegations to the Soviet Union,” A Collection of CAS Data, 1949–1954, p.237.Google Scholar

19 See n.14

20 “Summary of the Symposium on the Exchange of Experiences,” p. 243.

21 Division members in China correspond to, but are not the same as, the academicians of many foreign countries. At one time the CAS planned to adopt the system of academicians after selecting division members, but the idea failed to win approval from the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. The status of division members and of the General Assembly of Division Members has been in a state of constant flux, corresponding to changes in the political climate.

22 “Address by Jio-fu, Chang (b. 1903) at the Fourth Enlarged Meeting of the Scientific Plan Committee,” CAS Archives, CAS General Office, no.4, 1957.Google Scholar

23 CAS Archives, CAS General Office, no. 14, 1957.

24 In China, those who follow Marxism and support the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party are called leftists, while those who oppose Marxism and the Communist Party are called rightists. In 1957, Chinese democratic factions and some intellectuals were invited to criticize the Communist Party during its rectification movement, but their behavior was later considered antiparty and antisocialist. There was a strong movement to launch a counterattack on the so-called bourgeois rightists throughout the country. The rightists, because of their heterodox opinions, were considered enemies and treated accordingly-criticized, demoted, expelled from the Party, discharged from employment, reformed through forced labor, even imprisoned.

In modern China, there have been people who claimed to be leftist, but their actions and theories have opposed the Party and Marxism. The Chinese call them “leftist in form, rightist in fact.” The Gang of Four are an example.

25 The Great Leap Forward refers to an economic program put forward in 1958. Characterized by unrealistic goals and arbitrary and impracticable directions, it covered the fields of industry, agriculture, and science and brought terrible destruction to China.

26 CAS Bulletin, no. 15 (25 March 1981), CAS Archives, Party Committee, no, 1981, 2–37.Google Scholar

27 CAS Archives, CAS General Office, no. 1, 1958.

28 Ibid., no. 5, 1958.

29 Ibid., no. 1, 1958.

30 From the 1950s to the 1970s, on every January 1st (New Year's Day), May 1st (Labor Day), July 1st (Party's Birthday), and October 1st (National Day), people in industry, agriculture, and science would announce their achievements at a special ceremony. The Party leaders concerned would acknowledge the achievements, indicating that they had been gained under the Party's leadership. The ceremony was thus called “offering gifts to the Party.”

31 It is an ancient tradition in China to put up a stage and invite people to step forth and engage in a display of martial skill. During the Great Leap Forward, this model was followed in setting scientific targets – which made the targets quite unscientific. Most scientists were disgusted with this method; but because of political pressures they had no choice but to suppress their rage and remain silent.

32 Science News in Brief, n.s. no. 3 (19 July 1958).

33 Ibid.

34 Big-character posters (dazibao), which had emerged in the Antirightist Struggle in 1957, were a method of mass movement. They were widely used during the Cultural Revolution. People used bigcharacter posters to criticize someone else or to represent their own opinions. Chinese scientists were especially prone to public criticism in this manner.

35 Science News in Brief, n.s. no. 21 (20 April 1959).

36 “Report Concerning the Situation of Streamlining and Readjustment in CAS Local Branches and their Affiliated Research Setups,” CAS Archives, CAS General Office, 1962.

37 “A Corpus of CAS Statistical Data Between 1949 and 1980,” compiled and printed by the CAS Planning Bureau, July 1981.

38 Since the ideology-remolding campaign in the early 1950s, Chinese scientists had often felt severely constrained. At this series of forums, at which no notes were taken and no investigations made, those scientists who had been frightened to open their mouths felt as free as the gods- hence the term “meetings of immortals.”

39 As early as the drafting of the twelve-year plan for science and technology in 1956, basic research had been neglected. Particularly after the Great Leap Forward in 1958, the stress was on research emphasizing the completion of definite tasks. The phenomenon has been called “initiating projects to promote disciplines.” Basic research was neglected, even suppressed, over a long period of time.

40 Science News in Brief, Supplement no. 4 (3 July 1961).

41 Ibid.

42 CAS Archives, Party Committee, no. 1, 1955.

43 Contemporary China, Nuclear Industry Volume(Beijing:Chinese Social Science Press,1988), p.36.Google Scholar

44 “Report on Setting Up the Satellite Designing Institute, 1965,” CAS Archives, Party Committee, no. 5, 1965.

45 Ibid.

46 Contemporary China, CAS Vol., Chapter on Nuclear Science, Technology, and Mechanics(Beijing:forthcoming).Google Scholar

47 “Report of a Request to Strengthen and Improve Research on New Technology and Better Service for the National Defense,” CAS Archives, Party Committee, no. 20, 1960.

48 “A Speech Delivered by Zhou Enlai at the Mass Debate Held on September 7 at the CAS,” Collected Works and Speeches of Responsible Cadres of the Party Central Committee Delivered during the Cultural Revolution, vol. 1, October 1966, compiled by the Liaison Department of the Red Guards affiliated with the State Science and Technology Commission.

49 In January 1967, the followers of the Gang of Four instigated the masses in Shanghai to seize power.The practice soon became prevalent throughout the country. Most organizations were paralyzed, and normal order was destroyed.

50 CAS Archives, Party Committee, no. 1, 1968.

51 After China and the Soviet Union openly split in 1960, China called the Soviet Union revisionist.During the Cultural Revolution, those considered anti-Marxist were no longer called rightists, but revisionists.

52 CAS Archives, Party Committee, no. 1, 1969.

53 “Report on the CAS's Implementation of the Policy Toward Intellectuals,” Kexue Bau (Science), 2 10 1987, Beijing.Google Scholar

54 “Comprehensive Report on the CAS' Investigation and Handling of the Problem of Unnatural Deaths During the Cultural Revolution,” Document of the Group for Guiding the Party Consolidation Work of the CAS, (87)KZZ no. 002.

55 See n.52.

56 Minutes of a Meeting of the Leading Party Nucleus of the CAS, 13 July 1973, CAS Archives, no. 4,1973

57 See n. 14.

58 “Report on Criticizing the Bourgeoisie Reactionary View in National Scientific Theory from the CAS,” CAS Archives, Party Committee, no. 18, 1968.

59 Selections from Zhou Enlai(Beijing,People's Press,1984), p.473Google Scholar

60 “Premier Zhou Enlai's Report on the Work of the Government to the First Session of the Third National People's Congress of the People's Republic of China” (21–22 12 1964, Quotations from Chairman Mao Zedong (Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1966), p. 203.Google Scholar

61 After the Cultural Revolution the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, led by Hua Guofeng, asserted that “every decision made by Chairman Mao should be resolutely supported, and every instruction of Chairman Mao should be unswervingly followed.” A dispute in 1978 concerning the assertion “experience is the sole criterion for judging truth” revealed strong opinions against it. Because the Cultural Revolution had been launched by Mao Zedung, only by acknowledging experience to be “the sole criterion for judging truth” was it possible to negate the Cultural Revolution and criticize Mao to a certain extent.

62 “Science Has to Face Up to the Test of Practice,” People's Daily, 10 July 1978.

63 CAS Annual Report, 1979, CAS General Office, 1982, p. 318.Google Scholar

64 CAS Annual Report, 1986, CAS General Office, 1988, p. 579.Google Scholar

65 “An Outline Report on the CAS's Work,” CAS Annual Report, 1981, CAS General Office, p. 8.Google Scholar

66 Ibid., p. 1

67 CAS Bulletin, no. 4 (26 01 1983), CAS Archives, Party Committee, no. 2–24, 1983.Google Scholar

68 “An important Speech Delivered by Zhao Ziyang at the Science and Technology Award Meeting,” People's Daily, 25 10 1982.Google Scholar

69 Basic research does not fall under the rubric of either “sophisticated projects” that serve national defense (e. g., superconductor research) or “major projects” that serve the national economy (e. g., bringing the Huanghe, Huaihe, Haihe rivers under control). However, it is a prerequisite for all “sophisticated” and “major” projects - for developing science, applying future technology, and training qualified professionals.

70 A slogan during the Cultural Revolution was: “the working class must occupy the superstructure.”Since science and technology were considered part of the superstructure, workers' propaganda teams came to the CAS and universities. It became a legal and rational practice for workers to lead scientists.After the Cultural Revolution, to correct this absurd situation, the new leaders proposed that science and technology be part of the productive force, thus freeing them from ideological entanglement. This concept had a positive effect at the time. Today, however, more and more people recognize that science is not the same as technology and should not be viewed as a productive force.

71 After 1949, scientists were always called bourgeois intellectuals. Nonetheless, premier Zhou Enlai, in his addresses in 1956 and 1962, recognized the progress they had made, and this recognition was very important to the Chinese scientists at the time. It showed at least a certain trust in and respect for them.During the Cultural Revolution, however, they were once again publicly labeled bourgeois intellectuals.Since the end of the Cultural Revolution, they have been rehabilitated and recognized as part of the working class. Their social status has thus been raised and secured.

72 “Several Opinions on Improving the Treatment toward Intellectuals,” October 1987, Ministry of Labor and Personnel Report.

73 CAS Annual Report,1981), CAS General Office,1984, p. 54.Google Scholar

74 “Hold Higher the Great Banner of Mao Zedong Thought, Vigorously Give Prominence to Policies and Carry Out Further Revolutionization - Outline of the CAS's Work in 1966,” CAS Archives, Party Committee, no. 4, 1966.

75 Science News in Brief, n.s. no. 20 (1 03 1959), p. 3.Google Scholar