Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-lnqnp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T13:57:49.093Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Inventing Homo gardarensis: Prestige, Pressure, and Human Evolution in Interwar Scandinavia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 April 2014

Peter C. Kjærgaard
Peter C. Kjærgaard*
Affiliation:
Aarhus University Aarhus, Denmark E:mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Argument

In the 1920s there were still very few fossil human remains to support an evolutionary explanation of human origins. Nonetheless, evolution as an explanatory framework was widely accepted. This led to a search for ancestors in several continents with fierce international competition. With so little fossil evidence available and the idea of a Missing Link as a crucial piece of evidence in human evolution still intact, many actors participated in the scientific race to identify the human ancestor. The curious case of Homo gardarensis serves as an example of how personal ambitions and national pride were deeply interconnected as scientific concerns were sometimes slighted in interwar palaeoanthropology.

Type
Research Article
Information
Science in Context , Volume 27 , Issue 2: Science, Technology, Medicine – and the State: The Science-State Nexus in Scandinavia, 1850–1980 , June 2014 , pp. 359 - 383
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Anon. (G–s). 1929a. “Et ‘moderne’ Urmenneske” [A ‘Modern’ First Human]. Berlingske Tidende, 6 June, p. 10.Google Scholar
Anon. (G–s). 1929b. Det ‘moderne’ Urmenneske” [The ‘Modern’ First Human]. Berlingske Tidende, 23 June, pp. 1, 5.Google Scholar
Anon. (Talib.). 1930. “Hvorledes opstod ‘det moderne Urmenneske’?” [How Did the ‘Modern First Human’ Originate?] Berlingske Tidende, 4 July, p. 10.Google Scholar
Anon. 1860. “Our Scandinavian Ancestors.” Good Words 1 (18):273–278.Google Scholar
Anon. 1922. “A Prehistoric Columbus who Reached America by Land? An Artist's Vision of Hesperopithecus (The Ape-Man of the Western World) and Contemporary Animals.” The Illustrated London News, 24 June, p. 942–943.Google Scholar
Anon. 1928. “Hesperopithecus Dethroned: Only a Wild Pig.” The Times, 21 February, p. 16.Google Scholar
Anon. 1930a. “Gardarene Man: Sir Arthur Keith's Theory.” The Times, 6 May, p. 13.Google Scholar
Anon. 1930b. “Man of Gardar.” The Science News-Letter 18 (484).Google Scholar
Arsuaga, Juan Luis de. 2002. The Neanderthal's Necklace: In Search of the First Thinkers. New York: Four Walls Eight Windows.Google Scholar
Ballantyne, Tony. 2001. Orientalism, Racial Theory & British Colonialism: Aryanism in the British Empire. London: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Barth, Justus. 1896. Norrønaskaller: Crania antiqua in parte orientali Norvegiæ meridionalis inventa. Christiania (Today Oslo): A. W. Brøggers Bogtrykeri.Google Scholar
Bashford, Alison, and Levine, Philippa, eds. 2010. The Oxford Handbook of the History of Eugenics, Oxford Handbooks. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bennike, Pia. 1997. “Denmark.” In History of Physical Anthropology: An Encyclopedia, edited by Spencer, F.. New York: Garland Publishing.Google Scholar
Bennike, Pia, and Bonde, Niels. 1992. “Physical Anthropology and Human Evolution in Denmark and other Scandinavian Countries.” Human Evolution 7 (2):69–84.Google Scholar
Berglund, Joel. 1986. “The Decline of the Norse Settlements in Greenland.” Arctic Anthropology 23 (1/2):109–135.Google Scholar
Bergman, Gerald. 2006. “The History of Hesperopithecus: The Human-Ape Link that Turned Out to Be a Pig.” Rivista de biologia 99 (2):287–305.Google ScholarPubMed
Beuermann, Ian. 2010. “‘Norgesveldet’ South of Cape Wrath? Political Views, Facts, and Questions.” In The Norwegian Domination and the Norse World c.1000-c.1400, edited by Imsen, S., 99–123. Trondheim: Tapir Academic Press.Google Scholar
Björkman, Maria, and Widmalm, Sven. 2010. “Selling Eugenics: The Case of Sweden.” Notes and Records of the Royal Society 64 (4):379–400.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowler, Peter J. 1986. Theories of Human Evolution: A Century of Debate 1844–1944. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Bravo, Michael. 2002. “Measuring Danes and Eskimos.” In Narrating the Arctic: A Cultural History of Nordic Scientific Practices, edited by Bravo, Michael and Sörlin, Sverker, 235–274. Canton: Science History Publications.Google Scholar
Broberg, Gunnar, and Roll-Hansen, Nils, eds. 2005. Eugenics and the Welfare State: Sterilization Policy in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Finland. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press.Google Scholar
Bröste, Kurt, Fischer-Møller, Knud, and Pedersen, Poul Overdrup. 1944. The Mediaeval Norsemen at Gardar. Anthropological Investigation. Vol. 89, Meddelelser om Grønland. Copenhagen: C. A. Reitzels Forlag.Google Scholar
Bryn, Halfdan. 1926. “Die Menschenvarietäten Norwegens.” Anthropologischer Anzeiger 3:161–186.Google Scholar
Cederlund, Carl Olof. 2011. “The Modern Myth of the Viking.” Journal of Maritime Archaeology 6 (1):5–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Checkel, Jeffrey T., and Katzenstein, Peter J., eds. 2009. European Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Dawson, Charles, and Woodward, Arthur Smith. 1915. “On a Bone Implement from Piltdown (Sussex).” Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society 71 (1–4):144–149.Google Scholar
Day, Michael H. 1986. Guide to Fossil Man, 4th completely revised and enlarged edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Degerböl, Magnus. 1929. Animal Bones from the Norse Ruins at Gardar. Vol. 76, Meddelelser om Grønland. Copenhagen: C. A. Reitzels Forlag.Google Scholar
Drivenes, Einar-Arne, Jølle, Harald Dag, and Zachariasson, Ketil. 2004. Norsk Polarhistorie. 3 vols. Oslo: Gyldendal.Google Scholar
Duedahl, Poul. 2006. “Det videnskabelige menneske” [The Scientific Human]. In Lys over landet: Dansk naturvidenskabs historie, edited by Kjærgaard, Peter C.. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press.Google Scholar
Editorial. 1922. “The Oldest Fossil Man?” The Times, 20 May, p. 17.Google Scholar
Editorial. 1928. “Hesperopithecus.” The Times, 25 February.Google Scholar
Elliot Smith, Grafton. 1922a. “The Earliest Man? An American Discovery.” The Times, 20 May, p. 17.Google Scholar
Elliot Smith, Grafton. 1922b. “Hesperopithecus: The Ape-Man of the Western World.” Illustrated London News, 24 June, p. 944.Google Scholar
Elliot Smith, Grafton. 1931. “Human Palæontology.” Nature 127:963–967.Google Scholar
Finlayson, Clive. 2009. The Humans Who Went Extinct: Why Neanderthals Died Out and We Survived. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Fischer, Anders, and Kristiansen, Kristian, eds. 2002. The Neolithisation of Denmark: 150 Years of Debate. Sheffield: J. R. Collins.Google Scholar
Foley, Robert. 2001. “In the Shadow of the Modern Synthesis? Alternative Perspectives on the Last Fifty Years of Paleoanthropology.” Evolutionary Anthropology 10 (1):5–14.3.0.CO;2-Y>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frängsmyr, Tore. 2000. Svensk idehistoria: bildning och vetenskap under tusen år [Swedish History of Ideas: Cultural Formation and Science over a Thousand Years]. 2 vols. Stockholm: Natur och kultur.Google Scholar
Frängsmyr, Tore. 2006. Pekingmänniskan: en historia utan slut [Peking Man: A Story without Ending]. Stockholm: Natur och kultur.Google Scholar
Fürst, Carl Magnus, and Hansen, Frederik C. C.. 1915. Crania Groenlandica: A Description of Greenland Eskimo Crania: With an Introduction on the Geography and History of Greenland. Copenhagen: Andr. Fred. Høst.Google Scholar
Gjerløff, Anne Katrine. 2004. “Abens ansigter: Palæoantropologiens historie og formidling i Danmark i det 20. Århundrede” [Faces of the Ape: The History and Dissemination of Palaeoanthropology in Twentieth-Century Denmark]. PhD diss., Saxo Institute, University of Copenhagen.Google Scholar
Goodrum, Matthew R. 2009. “The History of Human Origins Research.” History of Science 47:337–357.Google Scholar
Gräslund, Bo. 1987. The Birth of Prehistoric Chronology: Dating Methods and Dating Systems in Nineteenth-Century Scandinavian Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Graves-Brown-Paul, Siân Jones, and Gamble, Clive, eds. 1996. Cultural Identity and Archaology: The Construction of European Communities. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Gregersen, Niels Henrik, and Kjærgaard, Peter C.. 2009. “Darwin and the Divine Experiment: Religious Responses to Darwin in Denmark 1859–1909. Studia Theologica: Nordic Journal of Theology 63 (2):140–161.Google Scholar
Hansen, Frederik C. C. 1921. Identifikation og rekonstruktion af historiske personers udseende paa grundlag af skelettet [Identification and Reconstruction of How Historical People Looked Based on Their Skeletons]. Copenhagen: University of Copenhagen.Google Scholar
Hansen, Frederik C. C. 1924. Anthropologia medico-historica Groenlandiæ antiquæ. I. Herjolfsnes, vol. 67. Meddelelser om Grønland. Copenhagen.Google Scholar
Hansen, Frederik C. C. 1931. “Homo gardarensis.” American-Scandinavian Review 19 (7):412–420.Google Scholar
Herrmann, Richard K., Risse, Thomas, and Brewer, Marilynn B., eds. 2004. Transnational Identities: Becoming European in the EU. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.Google Scholar
Hjermitslev, Hans Henrik. 2011. “Protestant Responses to Darwinism in Denmark, 1859–1914.” Journal of the History of Ideas 72 (2):279–303.Google Scholar
Holck, Per. 1997a. “Norway.” In History of Physical Anthropology: An Encyclopedia, edited by Spencer, F., 753–757. New York: Garland Publishing.Google Scholar
Holck, Per. 1997b. “Sweden.” In History of Physical Anthropology: An Encyclopedia, edited by Spencer, F., 1005–1008. New York: Garland Publishing.Google Scholar
Holten, Birgitte, and Sterll, Michael. 2000. “The Danish Naturalist Peter Wilhelm Lund (1801–80): Research on Early Man in Minas Gerais.” Luso-Brazillian Review 37 (1):33–45.Google Scholar
Huxley, Thomas Henry. 1863. Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature. London: Williams & Norgate.Google Scholar
Jahoda, Gustav. 2009. “Intra-European Racism in Nineteenth-Century Anthropology.” History and Anthropology 20:37–56.Google Scholar
Jensen, Johannes V. 1910. “Dansk Natur.” Riget 1:1–12.Google Scholar
Jensen, Johannes V. 1923. Æstetik og udvikling [Aesthetics and Development]. Copenhagen: Gyldendal.Google Scholar
Jensen, Johannes V. 1941. Vor oprindelse [Our Origin]. Copenhagen: Gyldendal.Google Scholar
Jónsson, Finnur. 1929. Rune Inscriptions from Gardar. Vol. 76, Meddelelser om Grønland. Copenhagen: C. A. Reitzels Forlag.Google Scholar
Jørgensen, Frederik. 1902. Anthropologiske undersøgelser fra Færøerne: anthropologia færoica [Anthropological Investigations from the Faroe Islands: Anthropologia Færoica]. Copenhagen: C.F. Rømer.Google Scholar
Keith, Arthur. 1930. “Recent Discoveries of Fossil Man.” Nature 125:935–942.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keith, Arthur. 1931. New Discoveries Relating to the Antiquity of Man. London: Williams & Norgate.Google Scholar
Kjærgaard, Peter C. 2002. “Competing Allies: Professionalisation and the Hierarchy of Science in Victorian Britain.” Centaurus 44 (3–4):248–288.Google Scholar
Kjærgaard, Peter C. 2006. “‘To the Benefit of Mankind, to Honour the Nation’: National Identity in an International World of Science.” In Perspectives on Scandinavian Science in the Early Twentieth Century, edited by Siegmund-Schulze, Reinhard and Sørensen, H. Kragh. Oslo: Novus Forlag.Google Scholar
Kjærgaard, Peter C. 2008. “A Small Country in an International World of Science.” In Science in Denmark: A Thousand-Year History, edited by Kragh, Helge, Kjærgaard, Peter. C., Nielsen, Henry, and Nielsen, Kristian H.. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press.Google Scholar
Kjærgaard, Peter C. 2011a. “‘Hurrah for the Missing Link!’: A History of Apes, Ancestors and a Crucial Piece of Evidence.” Notes and Records of the Royal Society 65 (1):83–98.Google Scholar
Kjærgaard, Peter C. 2011b. “Ida and Ardi: The Fossil Cover Girls of 2009.” Evolutionary Review 2:1–9.Google Scholar
Kjærgaard, Peter C. 2012a. “The Fossil Trade: Paying a Price for Human Origins.” Isis 103 (2):340–355.Google Scholar
Kjærgaard, Peter C. 2012b. “The Missing Link Expeditions, or How the Peking Man Wasn't Found.” Endeavour 36 (2):97–105.Google Scholar
Kjærgaard, Peter C., and Gregersen, Niels Henrik. 2006. “Darwinism Comes to Denmark: The Early Danish Reception of Charles Darwin's Origin of Species.” Ideas in History 1:151–175.Google Scholar
Kjærgaard, Peter C., Gregersen, Niels Henrik, and Hjermitslev, Hans Henrik. 2008. “Darwinizing the Danes, 1859–1909.” In The Reception of Charles Darwin in Europe, edited by Engels, Eve-Marie and Glick, Thomas. London: Continuum.Google Scholar
Koch, Lene. 1996. Racehygiejne i Danmark 1920–56 [Eugenics in Denmark 1920–56]. Copenhagen: Gyldendal.Google Scholar
Koch, Lene. 2000. Tvangssterilisation i Danmark 1929–67 [Forced Sterilisation in Denmark 1929–67]. Copenhagen: Gyldendal.Google Scholar
Koerner, Lisbet. 1999. Linnaeus: Nature and Nation. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Kohli, Martin. 2000. “The Battlegrounds of European Identity.” European Societies 2:113–137.Google Scholar
Kragh, Helge, Kjærgaard, Peter C., Nielsen, Henry, and Nielsen, Kristian Hvidtfelt, eds. 2005–2006. Dansk naturvidenskabs historie [A History of Science in Denmark]. 4 vols. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press.Google Scholar
Kragh, Helge, Kjærgaard, Peter C., Nielsen, Henry, and Nielsen, Kristian Hvidtfelt. 2008. Science in Denmark: A Thousand-Year History. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press.Google Scholar
Kristiansen, Kristian. 1981. “A Social History of Danish Archaeology (1805–1975).” In Towards a History of Archaeology, edited by Daniel, Glyn, 20–39. London: Thames and Hudson.Google Scholar
Kristiansen, Kristian. 2011. “A Social History of Danish Archaeology” (Reprint with New Epilogue). In Comparative Archaeologies: A Sociological View of the Science of the Past, edited by Lozny, Ludomir R., 195–220. New York: Springer. Page numbers?Google Scholar
Kyllingstad, Jon Røyne. 2004. Kortskaller og langskaller: Fysisk antropologi i Norge og striden om det nordiske herremennesket [Brachycephalics and Dolicocephalics: Physical Anthropology in Norway and the Battle over the Nordic Master Race]. Oslo: Scandinavian Academic Press/Spartacus Forlag.Google Scholar
Kyllingstad, Jon Røyne 2012. “Norwegian Physical Anthropology and the Idea of a Nordic Master Race.” Current Anthropology 53 (S5):S46–S56.Google Scholar
Lankester, Edwin Ray. 1910. Monograph of the Okapi. London: The Trustees of the British Museum.Google Scholar
Lewin, Roger, and Foley, Robert. 2004. Principles of Human Evolution, 2nd ed.Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Lipphardt, Veronika. 2012. “Isolates and Crosses in Human Population Genetics: or A Contextualization of German Race Science.” Current Anthropology 53 (S5):S69–S82.Google Scholar
Lipphardt, Veronika. 2013. “‘Europeans’ and ‘Whites’: Biomedical Knowledge about the ‘European Race’ in Early Twentieth Century Colonial Contexts.” In Imaginations of the European, edited by Middell, Matthias. Leipzig: Leipzig University Press.Google Scholar
Livingstone, David N. 1984. “Science and Society: Nathaniel S. Shaler and Racial Ideology.” Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 9 (2):181–210.Google Scholar
Livingstone, David N. 2010. “Cultural Politics and the Racial Cartographics of Human Origins.” Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 35 (2):204–221.Google Scholar
Ljungström, Olof. 2003. Oscariansk antropologi: etnografi, förhistoria och rasforskning under sent 1800-tal [Oscarian Anthropology: Ethnography, Prehistory and the Science of Race in the Late Nineteenth Century]. Möklinta: Gidlunds Förlag.Google Scholar
Lynnerup, Niels. 2009. “The Human Skeletons from Herjólfsnes.” Journal of the North Atlantic 2 (2):19–23.Google Scholar
Lynnerup, Niels, and Nørby, Søren. 2004. “The Greenland Norse: Bones, Graves, Computers, and DNA.” Polar Record 40:107–111.Google Scholar
MacLeod, Norman. 1860. “Our Scandinavian Ancestors.” In Good Words for 1860, edited by MacLeod, Norman, 273–277. London: Alexander Strahan & Co.Google Scholar
Marcussen, Martin, Risse, Thomas, Engelmann-Martin, Daniela, Knopf, Hans Joachim, and Roscher, Klaus. 1999. “Constructing Europe? The Evolution of French, British and German Nation State Identities.” Journal of European Public Policy 6:614–633.Google Scholar
McCormick, John. 2010. Europeanism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
McMahon, Richard. 2009. “Anthropological Race Psychology 1820–1945: A Common European System of Ethnic Identity Narratives.” Nations and Nationalism 15 (4):575–596.Google Scholar
Moberg, Carl Axel. 1981. “From Artefacts to Timetables to Maps (To Mankind?): Regional Traditions in Archaeological Research in Scandinavia.” World Archaeology 13 (2):209–221.Google Scholar
Neumann, Iver B. 1998. Uses of the Other: “The East” in European Identity Formation. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Nørlund, Poul. 1928. “Nordboproblemer i Grønland” [Problems for Nordic People in Greenland]. Geografisk Tidsskrift 31:46–61.Google Scholar
Nørlund, Poul. 1934. De gamle nordbobygder ved verdens ende: Skildringer fra Grønlands middelalder [The Old Nordic Villages by the End of the World: Tales from Medieval Greenland]. G.E.C. Gad. Copenhagen.Google Scholar
Nørlund, Poul. 1936. Viking Settlers in Greenland and Their Descendants During Five Hundred Years. London: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Nørlund, Poul, and Roussell, Aage. 1929. Norse Ruins at Gardar. The Episcopal Seat of Mediaeval Greenland. Vol. 76, Meddelelser om Grønland. Copenhagen: C. A. Reitzels Forlag.Google Scholar
Rasmussen, Knud. 1929. “Eskimos and Stone-Age Peoples: A Suggestion of an International Investigation.” Geografisk Tidsskrift 32:201–216.Google Scholar
Reader, John. 1988. Missing Links: The Hunt for Earliest Man, 2nd ed.London: Penguin.Google Scholar
Retzius, Anders. 1843. “Om formen af nordboernes cranier” [On the Shape of Nordic Skulls]. Förhandlinger vid de Skandinaviska naturforskarnes möte 3:157–201.Google Scholar
Retzius, Gustaf. 1889. Crania suecica antiqua. Beskrifning af svenska mennisko-kranier från stenåldern, bronsåldern och järnåldern jämte en blick på forskningen öfver de europeiska folkens ras-karaktärer [Crania Sueica Antiqua: Description of Swedish Human Skulls from the Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age, and a View on the Character of European Races]. Stockholm: Aftonbladet.Google Scholar
Retzius, Gustaf, and Fürst, Carl Magnus. 1902. Anthropologia suecica. Beiträge zur Anthropologie der Schweden nach den auf Veranstaltung der schwedischen Gesellschaft für Anthropologie und Geographie in den Jahren 1897 und 1898 ausgeführten Erhebungen ausgearbeitet und zusammengestellt. Stockholm: Aftonbladet.Google Scholar
Richards, Robert J. 2008. The Tragic Sense of Life: Ernst Haeckel and the Struggle over Evolutionary Thought. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Richmond, Jesse. 2009. “Design and Dissent: Religion, Authority, and the Scientific Spirit of Robert Broom.” Isis 100 (3):485–504.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ripley, William Z. 1899. The Races of Europe: A Sociological Study. New York: D. Appleton and Company.Google Scholar
Roebroeks, Wil. 2001. “Hominid Behaviour and the Earliest Occupation of Europe: An Exploration.” Journal of Human Evolution 41 (5):437–461.Google Scholar
Roebroeks, Wil, and van Kolfschoten, Thijs. 1995. The Earliest Occupation of Europe: Proceedings of the European Science Foundation Workshop at Tautavel (France), 1993. Leiden: University of Leiden.Google Scholar
Rowley-Conwy, Peter. 2007. From Genesis to Prehistory: The Archaeological Three Age System and Its Contested Reception in Denmark, Britain, and Ireland. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Schmalzer, Sigrid. 2008. The People's Peking Man: Popular Science and Human Identity in Twentieth-Century China. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Scott, Barbara G. 1996. “Archaeology and National Identity: The Norwegian Example.” Scandinavian Studies 68 (3):321–342.Google Scholar
Selcer, Perrin. 2012. “Beyond the Cephalic Index: Negotiating Politics to Produce UNESCO's Scientific Statements on Race.” Current Anthropology 53 (S5):S173–S184.Google Scholar
Smedley, Audrey. 1998. “‘Race’ and the Construction of Human Identity.” American Anthropologist 100 (3):690–702.Google Scholar
Spencer, Frank. 1990. Piltdown: A Scientific Forgery. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Spencer, Frank. 1997. History of Physical Anthropology: An Encyclopedia. 2 vols. New York: Garland Publishing.Google Scholar
Steensby, Hans Peder. 1908. “Racestudier i Danmark” [Studies of Race in Denmark]. Geografisk Tidsskrift 19:135–145.Google Scholar
Steensby, Hans Peder. 1911. “Foreløbige betragtninger over Danmarks raceantropologi” [Preliminary Thoughts on Racial Anthropology in Denmark]. Meddelelser om Danmarks Antropologi 1:83–148.Google Scholar
Stevenson, Beatrice Louise. 1916. Socio-Anthropometry: An Inter-Racial Critique, Human Personality Series. Boston: R.G. Badger.Google Scholar
Stringer, Chris. 2006. Homo Britannicus: The Incredible Story of Human Life in Britain. London: Penguin.Google Scholar
Tattersall, Ian. 2000. “Paleoanthropology: The Last Half-Century.” Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews 9 (1):2–16.Google Scholar
Tattersall, Ian, and Schwartz, Jeffrey H.. 2002. “Is Paleoanthropology Science? Naming New Fossils and Control of Access to Them.” The Anatomical Record 269 (6):239–241.Google Scholar
Trigger, Bruce G. 1984. “Alternative Archaeologies: Nationalist, Colonialist, Imperialist.” Man 19 (3):355–370.Google Scholar
Trigger, Bruce G. 2002. A History Of Archaeological Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Turda, Marius, and Weindling, Paul J., eds. 2007. Blood and Homeland: Eugenics and Racial Nationalism in Central and Southeast Europe 1900–1940. Budapest: Central European University Press.Google Scholar
Virchow, Rudolf. 1870. “Die altnordischen Schädel zu Kopenhagen.” Archiv für Anthropologie 4:55–91.Google Scholar
Watkins, Rachel J. 2012. “Biohistorical Narratives of Racial Difference in the American Negro: Notes toward a Nuanced History of American Physical Anthropology.” Current Anthropology 53 (S5):S196–S209.Google Scholar
Weidenreich, Franz. 1930. “Recent Discoveries of Fossil Man.” Naturwissenschaften 18 (46):955–956.Google Scholar
Weinstein-Evron, Mina. 2009. Archaeology in the Archives: Unveiling the Natufian Culture of Mount Carmel, American School of Prehistoric Research Monograph Series. Boston: Brill.Google Scholar
Woodward, Arthur Smith. 1948. The Earliest Englishman. London: Watts & Co.Google Scholar