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² Weinstein, James, The Corporate Ideal and the Liberal State (Boston, 1968), pp. ix–x.Google Scholar

³ Lustig, R. Jeffrey, Corporate Liberalism: The Origins of Modern Political Theory, 1890–1920 (Berkeley, 1982), pp. xi–xii.Google Scholar

⁴ Domhoff, G. William, The Higher Circles (New York, 1970), pp. 182–84;Google Scholar and Silk, Leonard and Silk, Mark, The American Establishment (New York, 1980);Google Scholar and Eakins, David, “The Development of Corporate Liberal Research in the United States” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1966).Google Scholar

⁵ Poulantzas, Nicos, State, Power, Socialism (London, 1978).Google Scholar

⁶ Block, Fred, “The Ruling Class Does Not Rule: Notes on the Marxist Theory of the State,” Socialist Revolution (05–06, 1977), 6–28.Google Scholar

⁷ Skocpol, Theda, “Political Responses to Capitalist Crisis: Neo-Marxist Theories of the State and the Case of the New Deal,” Politics and Society (1975), 155–99.Google Scholar

⁸ The Brookings Institution, “By-Laws of the Corporation,” in Board of Trustees, Minutes (04 21–22, 1922)Google Scholar in Brookings Institution Files (hereafter BIF).

⁹ “Efficiency” remains an ambiguous concept. At least three meanings have been imparted to this word by social scientists in the twentieth century. First, “efficiency and economy” experts often use efficiency to mean managerial and administrative competency. In turn, economists use efficiency in the sense of opportunity costs or resource input compared with product outcome, ofter measured in dollars. At the same time, some economists discuss efficiency in terms of human costs incurred and human satisfactions and benefits produced.

Therefore, efficiency can be used in a myriad of ways. Thus every system, as Jacques Ellul correctly observes in The Technological Society (New York, 1964),Google Scholar seeks efficiency. Nevertheless, efficiency, with its multiple meanings, will be defined by the institutional context of each organization within the sociopolitical or technological system.

See Slichter, Sumner, “Efficiency,” The Encyclopedia of Social Science, 5 (New York, 1937), 437–39.Google Scholar Also, Haber, Samuel, Efficiency and Uplift: Scientific Management in the Progressive Era, 1890–1920 (Chicago, 1964).Google Scholar

¹⁰ For a fine discussion of voluntarist and determinist models within the history of the social sciences, see Alexander, Jeffrey C., Theoretical Logic in Sociology, 2 vols. (Berkeley, 1983),Google Scholar especially volume II, The Antinomies of Classical Thought: Marx and Durkheim, xvii–xxi and 92–160.Google Scholar Alexander argues that deterministic models which emphasize social systems ignore the importance of individuals. Deterministic or collectivistic models assume that individual action is always instrumental and rational. Motives, therefore, are always calculating and efficient, action always predictable on the basis of external pressure alone. Alexander argues that social scientists must move beyond deterministic and voluntaristic models to a more synthetic and multidimensional understanding of the collective order.

¹¹ For Carnegie see Wall, Joseph Frazier, Andrew Carnegie (New York, 1970).Google Scholar The following discussion of Robert S. Brookings is drawn from two unpublished autobiographies, one dated 1920 and the other 11 April 1932, found in the Chancellor Files, Washington University Archives. Also, see Hagedorn, Herman, Robert S. Brookings: A Biography (New York, 1937).Google Scholar

¹² Thomson, Charles, The Institute for Government Research (Washington, D.C., 1965);Google Scholar and Saunders, Charles Jr, The Brookings Institution—A Fifty Year History (Washington, D.C., 1966).Google Scholar

¹³ President's Commission on Economy and Efficiency, The Need for a National Budget, H. Doc. 854, 62nd Cong., 2nd Sess. (Washington, D.C., 1910), pp. 23, 78–79.Google Scholar Also, Cleveland, Frederick, The Budget and Responsible Government (New York, 1920);Google ScholarFisher, Louis, Presidential Spending Power (Princeton, 1975), pp. 17–35;Google Scholar and Kimmel, Lewis, The Federal Budget and Fiscal Policy, 1789–1958 (Washington, D.C., 1959).Google Scholar

¹⁴ Samuel Hays originally called attention to this process of depoliticalization during the Progressive period in a series of monographs including, “Political Parties and the Community-Society Continuum,” in The American Party Systems, ed. Chambers, William N. and Burnham, Walter Dean (New York, 1967), esp., pp. 171–80;Google Scholar“The New Organizational Society,” in Building the Organizational Society; Essays on Associational Activities in Modern America, ed. Israel, Jerry (New York, 1972);Google Scholar and “The Politics of Reform in Municipal Government in the Progressive Era,” Pacific Northwest Quarterly, 55 (10 1964), 157–69.Google Scholar Also see Burnham, Walter Dean, Critical Elections and the Mainsprings of American Politics (New York, 1970), pp. 71–90.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Willoughby, William F., “Two Years of Legislation in Porto Rico,” Atlantic Monthly, 07 1902, pp. 34–42;Google Scholar“The Reorganization of Municipal Government in Porto Rico,” Political Science Quarterly, 24 (09 1909), 409–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Willoughby's twin brother, Westel, a professor of political science at Johns Hopkins, took the elitism of many social scientists a step further when he proposed in 1921 that “the vote of each individual be given a weight proportionate to his intelligence” (Willoughby, Westel W. and Rogers, Lindsay, An Introduction to the Problem of Government [New York, 1921]).Google Scholar

¹⁶ Anderson, Chandler P., Diary, entry 22 01 1918, Anderson Papers, Library of Congress (Washington, D.C.).Google Scholar Also, Schwarz, Jordan A., The Speculator: Bernard M. Baruch in Washington, 1917–1975 (Chapel Hill, 1981), pp. 73–76.Google ScholarUrofsky, Melvin I., Big Steel and the Wilson Administration: A Study in Business-Government Relations (New York, 1969);Google ScholarCuff, Robert D., The War Industries Board: Business-Government Relations During World War I (New York, 1973).Google Scholar

¹⁷ Fisher, Irving, “Economists in Public Service,” American Economic Review, 9 (06 1919).Google Scholar

¹⁸ Hagedorn, , Brookings, p. 261.Google Scholar

¹⁹ “Proposal to the Carnegie Foundation,” quoted in full in Board of Trustees, Minutes, 5 January 1922, BIF.

²⁰ John D. Rockefeller to Jerome P. Green, 8 November 1920, BIF.

²¹ Harold G. Moulton to Robert S. Brookings, 21 January 1922 and Moulton to Brookings, 8 May 1922, BIF.

²² Saunders, , The Brookings Institution, p. 39;Google ScholarLyon, Leverett, “Report to the Trustees,” in Memorandum on the Early History of the Brookings Institution, BIF.Google Scholar

²³ Brookings, Robert S., Industrial Ownership: Its Economic and Social Significance (New York, 1925).Google Scholar

²⁴ Ibid., pp. 58–64

²⁵ Ibid., pp. 54–55

²⁶ Quoted, in Hagedorn, Brookings, p. 310.Google Scholar

²⁷ Robert S. Brookings to Harold G. Moulton, 26 March 1932, BIF.

²⁸ Berle, Adolph A. and Means, Gardner C., The Modern Corporation and Private Property (New York, 1932).Google Scholar

²⁹ See Moulton, Harold G., Germany's Capacity to Pay (Washington, D.C., 1923);Google ScholarMoulton, Harold G. and Pasvolsky, Leo, World War Debt Settlements (New York, 1924);Google ScholarMoulton, H. G., “War Debts and International Trade Theory,” American Economic Review, 15 (12 1925).Google Scholar

For the Brookings Institution's work with Indians see Meriam, Lewis et al. , The Problem of Indian Administration in the United States (Washington, D.C., 1927).Google Scholar

³⁰ Lyon, Leverett et al. , The National Recovery Administration: An Analysis and Appraisal (Washington, D.C., 1935);Google ScholarLyon, Leverett, The Economics of Free Deals: With Suggestions for Code-Making Under the NRA (Washington, D.C., 1933);Google ScholarMoulton, Harold G., The Recovery Problem in the United States (Washington, D.C., 1938).Google Scholar

³¹ Moulton, Harold G. and Schlotterbeck, Karl T., Should Price Controls Be Retained? (Washington, D.C., 1945);Google ScholarBachman, George W. and Meriam, Lewis, The Issue of Compulsory Health Insurance (Washington, D.C., 1948);Google Scholar and Meriam, Lewis and Schlotterbeck, Karl, The Cost and Finances of Social Security (Washington, D.C., 1950).Google Scholar

³² Harold G. Moulton to Frederic Delano, 21 April 1935, BIF.

³³ Moulton, Harold G., Controlling Factors in Economic Development (Washington, D.C., 1949).Google Scholar

³⁴ Delano in fact resigned from the board of trustees after prolonged confrontations with Moulton.

³⁵ Standard works on government reorganization in the Roosevelt administration include Polenberg, Richard, Reorganizing Roosevelt's Government: The Controversy Over Executive Reorganization, 1936–1939 (Cambridge, 1966);CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Karl's, Barry Dean excellent Executive Reorganization and Reform in the New Deal (Cambridge, 1963).Google Scholar

Also see President's Committee on Government Administration and Management, The Reorganization of the Executive Branch of Government (Washington, D.C. 1937).Google Scholar

³⁶ The Brookings Institution's relations with the Brownlow Committee are found in Moulton, H. G., “Memorandum to Louis Brownlow,” (24 March 1937);Google Scholar and Brownlow, Louis, “Memorandum for Moulton,” (11 March 1937) in President's Reorganization Committee Files, FDR Library, Hyde Park, New York.Google Scholar Also, Seiko, Daniel, Memorandum, “Financial Administration of the Federal Government,” (n.d.) in the Brookings Institution Archives, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar

³⁷ Senator Byrd to W. F. Powell, 25 February 1937; H. G. Moulton to Senator Byrd, 2 March 1937; and Moulton to Senator Byrd, 23 March 1937, in the Brookings Institution Archives, Washington, D.C.

³⁸ Memorandum, “State and County Surveys Made by the Institute for Government Research, 1929–1941,” (n.d.) in the Brookings Institution Archives.

³⁹ U.S. Congress, Hearings Before the Joint Committee on Government Organization (Washington, D.C., 1937), pp. 276–94, 307–310.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Edwin Gay to Harold G. Moulton, 3 August 1943.

⁴¹ See Harold G. Moulton's speeches to the Foreign Policy Association, Philadelphia, 16 December 1944; American Finance Conference, 17 November 1943; American Institute of Real Estate Appraisers, 18 November 1940; the Ohio Public Expenditures Conference, 3 November 1949, BIF.

⁴² Quoted in Alexander, , Theoretical Logic in Sociology, 2: 93.Google Scholar