¹ These descriptive and evaluative phrases may be found, in the order in which they appear in the text, in the following sources: Bowles, Chester, “A Plea for Another Great Debate,” New York Times Magazine, 02 28, 1954, p. 11Google Scholar; Vice-President Nixon in a radio-TV address, New York Times, 03 14, 1954, p. 44Google Scholar; Dulles, John Foster, “Policy for Security and Peace,” Foreign Affairs, XXXII (04, 1954), 359Google Scholar: Reston, James. “The President—After a Year,” New York Times Magazine, 01 17, 1954, p. 25Google Scholar; attributed to Admiral Robert B. Carney by Baldwin, Hanson, New York Times, 02 24, 1954, p. 13Google Scholar; U. S. Department of Defense, Semiannual Report of the Secretary of Defense, July 1 to December 31, 1953 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1954), p. 2Google Scholar; Admiral Radford, Arthur W., “The ‘New Look’” Vital Speeches of the Day, XX (01 1, 1954), 171Google Scholar; Knowland, William F., “The ‘Instant Retaliation’ Policy Defended,” New York Times Magazine, 03 21, 1954, p. 74Google Scholar; President Eisenhower during press conference, New York Times, 03 21, 1954, p. E2Google Scholar; William S. White, ibid., July 18, 1954, p. E2; Senator Mansfield during radio debate, ibid., February 18, 1954, p. 30; Adlai E. Stevenson in an address at Miami Beach, ibid., March 7, 1954, p. 62; Goldwater, Senator, “The New Look in the United States Air Force,” Vital Speeches of the Day, XX (04 15, 1954), 395Google Scholar; Senator Saltonstall during radio debate, New York Times, 02 8, 1954, p. 30Google Scholar; Secretary of Navy Anderson's remarks to newsmen, ibid., March 10, 1954, p. 12; Krock, Arthur, “Bipartisanship—Theory and Fact,” New York Times Magazine, 03 14, 1954, p. 34.Google Scholar

² Radford, , “‘New Look,’” loc. cit., p. 171Google Scholar; and U. S. Department of Defense, Semiannual Report of the Secretary of Defense, January 1 to June 30, 1953 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), p. 4.Google Scholar

³ McLeod, Scott, “Security in the Department of State,” United States Department of State Bulletin (Hereafter cited as Bulletin), XXX (03 29, 1954), 470.Google Scholar

⁴ Dulles, John Foster, “The Evolution of Foreign Policy,” Bulletin, XXX (01 25, 1954), 108Google Scholar. This was the first official policy statement by the Secretary in which he placed so much stress upon these aspects of deterrent power. Seven months before he took office as Secretary of State, however, Mr. Dulles had expounded clearly his views on the need “for the free world to develop the will and organize the means to retaliate instantly … where it hurts [the aggressor], by means of our choosing.” See Dulles, John Foster, “A Policy of Boldness,” Life, XXXII (05 19, 1952), 151.Google Scholar

⁵ Smith, Walter B., “A Foreign Policy for the Long Haul,” Bulletin, XXX (02 22, 1954), 264–65Google Scholar. Interestingly enough, Smith had entitled, evidently quite casually, one of his early speeches (on May 8, 1953) “A New Look at Our Foreign Policy.” The term was in no way used as a slogan or catch-phrase and it did not at that time become accepted as one. See ibid., XXVIII (May 18, 1953), 703–06.

⁶ Morton, Thurston B., “Our Foreign Policy in Today's World,”Google Scholaribid., XXX (March 8, 1954), 361.

⁷ Stevenson, , Miami Speech, New York Times, p. 62.Google Scholar

⁸ U. S. Department of Defense, Semiannual Report, January 1 to June 30, 1953, pp. 1–8Google Scholar. Criticism of the “interim look” stemmed mainly from advocates of the “air-atomic priority theory” of defense who felt that the first Eisenhower budget dealt a severe blow to the Air Force build-up. See Finletter, Thomas K., “A New Look at Air Policy,” The Atlantic, CXCII (09, 1953), 25–30Google Scholar. Criticism also came from those who felt that the fears of the Administration concerning the inability of the American economy to absorb higher defense spending were unfounded. See Harris, Seymour E., “The Battle of the Budget,” Current History, XXVI (05, 1954), 291–92.Google Scholar

⁹ U. S. Congress, Senate. Department of Defense Appropriations for 1955. Hearings before the Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, 83d Cong., 2d sess. (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1954), p. 2.

¹⁰ U. S. Department of Defense, Semiannual Report, January 1 to June 30, 1953, p. 3.Google Scholar

¹¹ Radford, , “‘New Look’,” loc. cit., p. 171.Google Scholar

¹² Ibid., pp. 172–73.

¹³ See below pp. 126 ff.

¹⁴ See Radford testimony on February 2, 1954, in U. S. Congress, House of Representatives, Department of Defense and Related Independent Agencies Appropriations for 1955, Hearings before Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, 83d Cong., 2d sess., (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1954), pp. 120–22. Also see Radford, Admiral Arthur W., “Strong U. S. Defense for the ‘Long Pull,’” U. S. News and World Report, XXXVI (03 5, 1954), 48–54Google Scholar; report on Radford speech before the Economic Club of New York in New York Times, 03 10, 1954, p. 12Google Scholar; Radford testimony on March 16, 1954, in U. S. Congress, Senate, Defense Appropriations for 1955, pp. 81–84Google Scholar; and Radford statement of April 14, 1954, in U. S. Congress, Senate, Statements of Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and Admiral Arthur Radford, Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff, Hearings before the Committee on Foreign Relations, 83d Cong., 2d sess., on Foreign Policy and its Relation to Military Programs, (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1954), pp. 46–51.

¹⁵ The impact of new weapons upon these relationships was first officially stressed by the President in his 1954 State of the Union Message. See Bulletin, XXX (01 18, 1954), 71.Google Scholar

¹⁶ U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Department of the Air Force Appropriations for 1955, Hearings before the Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, 83d Cong., 2d sess., (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1954), pp. 77, 157–58. See also General Weyland, Otto P., “Can Air Power Win ‘Little Wars’?,” U.S. News and World Report, XXXVII (04 23, 1954), 54–61.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Testimony of Admiral Carney on February 10, 1954, in U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Department of the Navy Appropriations for 1955, Hearings before the Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, 83d Cong., 2d sess., (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1954), pp. 66, 37–39.

¹⁸ Testimony of General Ridgway on February 8, 1954, in ibid., Department of the Army Appropriations for 1955, p. 55.Google Scholar

¹⁹ See Radford statement as reported in New York Times, 03 17, 1954, p. 6Google Scholar; and Wilson statement in U.S. Congress, House, Defense Appropriations for 1955, p. 3.Google Scholar

²⁰ There is, of course, still the opposite argument, set forth by proponents of the “air-atomic priority theory,” to the effect that the fiscal 1955 budget does not provide sufficient air power. See in this regard: The letter to the editor by Thomas K. Finletter and Roswell L. Gilpatric in the New York Times, 01 26, 1954, p. 26Google Scholar; the criticism by Senator Symington as reported in ibid., March 30, 1954, p. 1; and Murphy, Charles J. V., “Is the H-Bomb Enough?,” Fortune, XLIX (06, 1954), 102–03Google Scholar. Cf. Commander Williams, Ralph E. Jr., “The Great Debate: 1954,” United States Naval Institute Proceedings, LXXX (03, 1954), 247–55.Google Scholar

²¹ See appropriate House Subcommittee hearings cited above.

²² U. S. Congress, House, Army Appropriations for 1955, p. 55. Italics added.Google Scholar

²³ New York Times, 07 25, 1954, p. 4Google Scholar; ibid., August 1, 1954, p. 36; “More for Arms—not Less,” U.S. News and World Report, XXXVII (08 13, 1954), 17–19Google Scholar; “Ridgway's Biggest Battle—for Troops, not Machines,” Newsweek, XLIV (07 26, 1954), 20–22Google Scholar. These reports differ as to the figures on manpower changes but no doubt remains that the Army and Marines will be significantly strengthened in comparison to the plans on which the fiscal year 1955 budget was based.

²⁴ Secretary of Defense Wilson first mentioned the possible need for a “second new look” on April 26, 1954. New York Times, 05 10, 1954, p. 1Google Scholar. Soon thereafter he began to try avoiding any reference to the “new look,” ibid., p. 10. It seems quite likely that a top-level review of the “new look” was made at the “second Quantico Conference” held in mid-June. See ibid., June 18, 1954, p. 26; June 19, 1954, p. 1; June 20, 1954, p. 29; June 21, 1954, p. 1.

²⁵ On July 31, 1954, the New York Times reported that Assistant Secretary of Defense H. Struve Hensel had said in Madrid that he would return to the United States to propose a reconsideration, or review, of the United States political, economic and military policy “on a global basis,” and on all levels, including the Joint Chiefs of Staff, p. 14.

²⁶ Radford, , “Defense for the ‘Long Pull’,” loc. cit., p. 48.Google Scholar

²⁷ Numerous Eisenhower Administration spokesmen have testified as to the basic soundness of the Truman “crash program.” See, for example: Radford statement in U.S. Congress, Senate, Defense Appropriations for 1955, p. 81Google Scholar; Wilson statement in U. S. Congress, House, Defense Appropriations for 1955, p. 3Google Scholar; Twining statement in U.S. Congress, House, Air Force Appropriations for 1955, p. 80.Google Scholar

²⁸ See below, pp. 125 ff.

²⁹ See above, p. 112.

³⁰ Stevenson, , Miami Speech, New York Times, p. 62Google Scholar; Bowles, , “A Plea,” loc. cit., p. 11.Google Scholar

³¹ New York Times, 03 14, 1954, p. 44.Google Scholar

³² Ibid., March 11, 1954, p. 14.

³³ See Dulles testimony of March 19, 1954 in U.S. Congress, Senate, Statements of Dulles and Radford, pp. 2–46Google Scholarpassim, especially p. 9.

³⁴ Bowles, , “A Plea,” loc. cit., p. 11.Google Scholar

³⁵ Stevenson, , Miami Speech, New York Times, p. 62.Google Scholar

³⁶ Acheson, Dean, “‘Instant Retaliation’: The Debate Continued,” New York Times Magazine, 03 28, 1954, p. 13.Google Scholar

³⁷ See Morgenthau, Hans J., Simpson, Alan, and Urey, Harold C., “The New Defense Strategy,” The University of Chicago Round Table, No. 825 (01 31, 1954), 9–10Google Scholar; and remarks by Kennan, George F. reported in the New York Times, 03 31, 1954, p. 6.Google Scholar

³⁸ New York Times, 03 16, 1954, p. 1Google Scholar; March 17, 1954, p. 8; March 21, 1954, p. E2; and Stone, William T., “National Defense Strategy,” Editoral Research Reports, 04 15, 1954, pp. 300–01Google Scholar. For Dulles' view that no U. S. allies expressed concern either publicly or privately see U.S. Congress, Senate, Statements of Dulles and Radford, p. 19.Google Scholar

³⁹ See report on Dulles press conference in New York Times, 03 17, 1954, p. 6.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ U.S. Congress, Senate, Statements of Dulles and Radford, p. 43.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Ibid., pp. 3–5, 22. For other statements by Dulles emphasizing the same points see “Policy for Security and Peace,” loc. cit., pp. 354–64Google Scholar; New York Times, 03 17, 1954, p. 6Google Scholar; Bulletin, XXX (04 19, 1954), 580–81Google Scholar; ibid., June 14, 1954, pp. 927–28; ibid., pp. 921, 924–25; ibid., June 21, 1954, pp. 938–39.

⁴² See letter to the editor from Chester Bowles in New York Times Magazine, 04 4, 1954, p. 6Google Scholar; Stevenson statement in New York Times, 03 15, 1954, p. 17Google Scholar; and Pearson statement in ibid., March 26, 1954, p. 5.

⁴³ Ibid., April 21, 1954, p. 4; June 27, 1954, p. 37; June 28, 1954, p. 2.

⁴⁴ Bulletin, XXVIII (06 22, 1953), 871Google Scholar; ibid., XXX (January 25, 1954), 107; Dulles, John Foster, “Policy for Security and Peace,” loc. cit., p. 354.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ New York Times, 03 15, 1954, p. 17Google Scholar; June 28, 1954, p. 19.

⁴⁶ See statements by Senator Lehman and Representative F. D. Roosevelt, Jr., as reported in ibid., May 17, 1954, p. 1, and July 13, 1954, p. 10, respectively. Also see Harriman, W. Averell, “Leadership in World Affairs,” Foreign Affairs, XXXII (07, 1954), 525–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴⁷ Bulletin, XXIX (09 14, 1953), 342.Google Scholar

⁴⁸ Ibid., XXX (April 12, 1954), 540.

⁴⁹ Bulletin, XXX (04 5, 1954), 513Google Scholar; U. S. Congress, Senate, Statements of Dulles and Radford, pp. 25–26Google Scholar; U.S. Congress, Senate, Mutual Security Act of 1954, Hearings before the Committee on Foreign Relations on the Mutual Security Program for Fiscal Year 1955, 83d Cong., 2d sess. (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1954), pp. 32–34.

⁵⁰ For a clear statement of the traditional role of the Joint Chiefs of Staff by the former Chairman of that body, General Omar Bradley, see Bulletin, XXVIII (03 16, 1953), 414–15.Google Scholar

⁵¹ See Wilson, Twining, and Radford statements in U.S. Congress, Senate, Defense Appropriations for 1955, pp. 3–4, 75–76, 81Google Scholar; Wilson and Radford statements in U.S. Congress, House, Defense Appropriations for 1955, pp. 3–13, 120–21Google Scholar; Radford statement in U.S. Congress, Senate, Statements of Dulles and Radford, pp. 47–48Google Scholar; Anderson and Carney statements in U.S. Congress, House, Navy Appropriations for 1955, pp. 1–5, 37–38, 66Google Scholar; Stevens and Ridgway testimony in ibid., Army Appropriations for 1955, pp. 55, 42, 51–52, 79Google Scholar. Talbott and Twining statements in ibid., Air Force Appropriations for 1955, pp. 2–3, 76–80.

⁵² In spite of Mr. Dulles' firm contention that it was made there is little supporting evidence. First, none of the Joint Chiefs of Staff ever referred to such a basic decision even though most of their significant statements concerning the “new look” were made after Mr. Dulles' speech in January (see references cited in note 51 above). Second, President Eisenhower said on the day following Dulles' speech that reliance on strong retaliatory power “didn't take much decision”; it rested on the “fundamental truth” that such power was the only deterrent to surprise atomic attack (see New York Times, 01 14, 1954, p. 12Google Scholar). Third, the only support Mr. Dulles ever received for his contention came from Walter B. Smith and Thurston B. Morton of the Department of State and Vice-President Nixon. Of these three, the only one who continued such support after the debate on the “new look” got underway was Vice-President Nixon in his obviously partisan speeches (see Bulletin, XXX [02 22, 1954], 265Google Scholar; ibid., March 8, 1954, pp. 363–64; New York Times, 03 14, 1954, p. 44Google Scholar; and references cited in note 43 above). Fourth, Dulles himself tended, in the course of his clarifying statements, to back away from his own very positive contention of January 12 (see Dulles, , “Policy for Security and Peace,” loc. cit., p. 362Google Scholar; and U. S. Congress, Senate, Statements of Dulles and Radford, pp. 23–25, 42).Google Scholar

⁵³ “Defense and Strategy,” Fortune, XLVIII (12, 1953), 77–78, 82, 84Google Scholar; Katzenbach, Edward L. Jr., “The Dinlomatic Cost of Military Penny Pinching,” The Reporter, X (02 2, 1954), 18–21Google Scholar; New York Times, 03 21, 1954, p. 3E.Google Scholar

⁵⁴ See references cited in note 53 above.

⁵⁵ Bulletin, XXVIII (02 9, 1953), 207.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ Ibid., XXIX (July 20, 1953), 91.

⁵⁷ U.S. Congress, Senate, Mutual Security Act of 1954, pp. 58–59, 65, 142–43Google Scholar; and New York Times, 01 21, 1954, p. 3.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ Bulletin, XXX (02 1, 1954), 144.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ U.S. Congress, Senate, Mutual Security Act of 1954, p. 502.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Bulletin, XXVIII (02 9, 1953), 208.Google Scholar

⁶¹ Ibid., February 20, 1953, p. 353. Italics added.

⁶² Ibid., p. 354.

⁶³ Ibid., XXIX (July 27, 1953), 11.

⁶⁴ Ibid., September 28, 1953, p. 406.

⁶⁵ Ibid., January 26, 1953, pp. 129–30.

⁶⁶ Ibid., March 23, 1953, p. 430.

⁶⁷ Ibid., February 9, 1953, p. 207.

⁶⁸ Dulles, , “Policy for Security and Peace,” loc. cit., p. 360.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ New York Times, 04 1, 1954, p. 12.Google Scholar