¹ In the Arab World Iraq, Jordan, and Egypt (until 1952) have adopted a British-type constitutional monarchy, whereas Syria and Lebanon are republics after the French pattern.

² Orthodox theologians and conservative thinkers accused Mustapha Kemal of undermining Islam by introducing Western democracy into Turkey.

³ SirArnold, T. W., The Caliphate (Oxford, 1924), p. 17.Google Scholar

⁴ Gardet, Louis, La Cité Musulmane (Paris, 1954), p. 27.Google Scholar

⁵ Ibid., p. 36.

⁶ Recurrence and regularity in nature are explained in terms of the “custom of God,” 'ādat Allah.

⁷ An eminent Pakistani scholar maintains that, as a result of human weakness, man cannot comprehend what is good or bad without being guided by a Prophet; Fyzee, Asaf A. A., Outlines of Muhammadan Law (Oxford, 1949), p. 15.Google Scholar

⁸ This is also true in a democracy with the essential difference that in a democracy, we obey laws of our own making.

⁹ Rida, Rashid, al-Khilāfa wal-Imāma al-'Uzmā (The Caliphate or the Supreme Imamate) (Cairo, 1922), p. 27.Google Scholar Cf. Koran, 6, 57.Google Scholar

¹⁰ al-Tiktaka, Ibn: al-Fakhri on the systems of government and the Muslim dynasties, trans, by Whiting, C. E. J. (London, 1947), p. 30.Google Scholar

¹¹ SirGibb, H. A. R., “Social Reform Factor X, The Search for an Islamic Democracy,” The Atlantic Monthly, 10, 1956, p. 138.Google Scholar

¹² “Although we are apt to think of Islam as a religion,” said Professor D. S. Margoliouth, “it is probable that the Prophet thought of it rather as a nation.”

¹³ Faruki, Kemal A., Islamic Constitution (Karachi, 1952), p. 57.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Jews and Christians were the only religious groups allowed by Islam to maintain their own beliefs and practices if they chose to, on the grounds that they believed in the one God and had the “book.” Others were given the choice of either conversion or the sword.

¹⁵ von Grunebaum, Gustav E., Medieval Islam, 2nd ed. (Chicago, 1954), p. 179.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Gardet, , op. cit., p. 58.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Rida, , op. cit., p. 124.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Ibid., p. 123. This is true of most Muslim sects except the Shi'ites who maintain that the Imam receives revelation directly from God and alone has the right to interpret the Koran and the Traditions.

¹⁹ It is difficult to reconcile this with the Tradition mentioned on page 168 which implies that obedience is the duty of the Believer no matter what the rulers do. Cf. Rida, , op. cit., p. 41.Google Scholar

²⁰ Levy, Reuben, The Social Structure of Islam (Cambridge [England], 1957), p. 103.Google Scholar

²¹ Ibid., p. 81.

²² Gardet, , op. cit., p. 64.Google Scholar

²³ Levy, , op. cit., p. 78.Google Scholar

²⁴ Koran, 4, 38.Google Scholar

²⁵ However, women did vote in the 1957 national election in Egypt, and two women were elected to Parliament, The New York Times, 07 16, 1957.Google Scholar

²⁶ Gardet, , op. cit., p. 70.Google Scholar

²⁷ Lindsay, A. D., The Modern Democratic State (London, 1955), p. 120.Google Scholar

²⁸ The French understanding of the separation of powers is quite different from, if not completely opposed to, the American practice.

²⁹ Contemporary examples are Saudi Arabia and Yemen.

³⁰ Note the significant demand for a “controlled” and “guided” democracy in Pakistan and Indonesia respectively.

³¹ In response to recent claims by the orthodox that Turkey should restore the Shari'a as a source of legislation, President Bayar said: “We must never give reaction a chance to return to Turkey.” He was supported by the Opposition leader, Inonu, Ismat. Time, 06 24, 1957.Google Scholar However, the Turkish Government has found it feasible to encourage the revival of Islamic religious sentiment as a check to Communism or as a means for political ends. Cf. Reed, Howard A., “Secularism and Islam in Turkish Politics,” Current History, Vol. 32, No. 190, (06 1957), pp. 333–38.Google Scholar

³² Smith, W. C., Modern Islam in India, A Social Analysis, rev. ed. (London, 1947), pp. 110–111, 133.Google Scholar

³³ Ibid., p. 149.

³⁴ Islam and the Principles of Government (Cairo, 1925).Google Scholar

³⁵ From Here We Start, 7th ed. (Cairo, 1954).Google Scholar

³⁶ Rasik, , op. cit., p. 102.Google Scholar

³⁷ Khalid, , op. cit., p. 134.Google Scholar

³⁸ Ibid., p. 142. This does not mean that Islam is equally tolerant of communism or fascism.

³⁹ Muhammad 'Abdu urged the pursuit of modern thought, confident that in the last resort it could not undermine but only confirm the religious truth of Islam.

⁴⁰ al-Aqqad, Abbas M., Democracy in Islam (Arabic) (Cairo, 1952), pp. 62–63.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Ibid., p. 65.

⁴² Ibid., p. 109.

⁴³ Gardet, , op. cit., p. 120.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ The Hanbalite school rejected ijma' as invalid after the first generation of the Companions of the Prophet, and Qiyās, analogy, as a legal method. The Wahhabis of Saudi Arabia followed the Hanbalites in rejecting ijma'. Gibb, H. A. R., Mohammedanism (London, 1949), pp. 170–171.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ al-Razik, Ali Abd, Consensus in the Islamic Shari'a (Cairo 1947), p. 96.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ Hamayun, Kabir, Science, Democracy, and Islam (London, 1955), p. 20.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Ibid., p. 21.

⁴⁸ Ibid., p. 22.