Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7fkt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T03:30:43.681Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

The Study of Political Unrest and Violence: The Middle East

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 March 2016

Farhad Kazemi*
Affiliation:
New York University

Extract

The late Hannah Arendt once observed that “violence itself is incapable of speech, and not merely that speech is helpless when confronted with violence. Because of this speech-lessness political theory has little to say about the phenomenon of violence and must leave its discussion to the technicians;” (Arendt, 1963, p.9). This may have been true at the time of Arendt’s writing. The situation, however, dramatically changed when the violence of the sixties began in earnest. The academic market was soon lost in a maze of articles, books, and analyses of political violence from the perspective of not only political theory but practically every discipline in the social sciences and humanities. These new works supplemented the traditional and earlier studies of violence by the Marxist school and others. Thus by the turn of the decade, the student of political violence was faced with the difficult task of trying to evaluate and sift his way through an ever-expanding plethora of concepts, theories, definitions, explanations, and models of political violence which abounded in the field.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Middle East Studies Association of North America 1978

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abdel-Malek, A. 1962. “La Question Agraire en Egypte et la Reforme de 1952.” Tiers-Monde, 3, 181219.Google Scholar
Abdel-Malek, A. 1968. Egypt: Military Society. New York: Random House.Google Scholar
Abrahamian, E. 1968. “The Crowd in Iranian Politics, 1905–1953.” Past and Present. 41, 184210.Google Scholar
Abrahamian, E. 1969. “The Crowd in the Persian Revolution.” Iranian Studies, 2, 128150.Google Scholar
Abu-Lughod, J. 1961. “Migrant Adjustment to City Life: The Egyptian Case.” American Journal of Sociology, 67, 2232.Google Scholar
Abu-Lughod, J. 1964. “Urban-Rural Differences as a Function of the Demographic Transition: Egyptian Data and an Analytical Model.” American Journal of Sociology. 69, 476490.Google Scholar
Abu-Lughod, J. 1965. “Urbanization in Egypt: Present State and Future Prospects.” Economic Development and Cultural Change, 13, 313343.Google Scholar
Abu-Lughod, J. 1972. “Rural Migration and Politics in Egypt,” in Rural Politics and Social Change in the Middle East, ed. by Antoun, R. and Harik, I.. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Adams, J. 1957. “Culture and Conflict in an Egyptian Village.” American Anthropologist, 59, 223235.Google Scholar
Adams, W. 1963. “The Pre-Revolutionary Decade of Land Reform in Iraq.” Economic Development and Cultural Change, 11, 267288.Google Scholar
Aktan, R. 1957. “Mechanization of Agriculture in Turkey.” Land Economics, 33, 273285.Google Scholar
Aktan, R. 1966. “Problems of Land Reform in Turkey.” Middle East Journal, 20, 317334.Google Scholar
Alavi, H. 1965. “Peasants and Revolution,” in The Socialist Register, ed. by Miliband, R. and Saville, J.. New York: Monthly Review.Google Scholar
Alavi, H. 1973. “Peasant Classes and Primordial Loyalties.” Journal of Peasant Studies, 1, 2361.Google Scholar
Antoun, R. 1965. “Conservatism and Change in the Village Community: A Jordanian Case Study.” Human Organization, 24, 410.Google Scholar
Antoun, R. and Harik, I., eds. 1972. Rural Politics and Social Change in the Middle East. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Arendt, H. 1963. On Revolution. New York: Viking Press (1965).Google Scholar
Arendt, H. 1967. The Origins of Totalitarianism. New York: Meridian.Google Scholar
Armstrong, L. and Hirabayashi, G.. 1956. “Social Differentiation in Selected Lebanese Villages.” American Sociological Review, 21, 425434.Google Scholar
Ayoub, V.Conflict Resolution and Social Reorganization in a Lebanese Village.” Human Organization, 24, 1117.Google Scholar
Ayrout, H. 1963. The Egyptian Peasant. Boston: Beacon.Google Scholar
Banuazizi, A. 1976. “Iran: The Making of a Regional Power,” in The Middle East: Oil, Conflict and Hope, ed. by Udovitch, A.. Lexington: D.C. Heath.Google Scholar
Be’eri, E. 1970. Army Officers in Arab Politics and Society. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
Berger, M. 1960. Military Elite and Social Change: Egypt Since Since Napoleon. Princeton Univ., Center for International Studies.Google Scholar
Berque, J. 1972. Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution. London: Faber.Google Scholar
Bill, J. 1969. “The Military and Modernization in the Middle East.” Comparative Politics, 2, 4162.Google Scholar
Bill, J. and Leiden, C., 1974. The Middle East: Politics and Power. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.Google Scholar
Bonine, M. 1976. “Urban Studies in the Middle East.” Middle East Studies Association Bulletin. 10, 137.Google Scholar
Bourgey, A. and Phares, J.. 1973. “Les Bidonvilles, de l’Agglomération de Beyrouth.” Revue de Géographie de Lyon, 48, 10739.Google Scholar
Clark, B. and Fisher, W.B., eds. 1972. Populations of the Middle East and North Africa: A Geographical Approach. London : Univ. of London Press.Google Scholar
Costello, V.F. 1977. Urbanization in the Middle East. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Cornelius, W. 1969. “Urbanization as an Agent in Latin American Political Instability: The Case of Mexico.” American Political Science Review, 63, 833857.Google Scholar
Cornelius, W. 1975. Politics and the Migrant Poor in Mexico City. Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Cottam, R. 1964. Nationalism in Iran. Pittsburgh: Univ. of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar
Dabbagh, S. 1962. “Agrarian Reform in Syria.” Middle East Economic Papers, 115.Google Scholar
Dann, U. 1969. Iraq Under Qassem. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
Dekmejian, R.H. 1971. Egypt Under Nasir. Albany: State Univ. of New York.Google Scholar
Elkabir, Y. 1972. “The Assimilation of Rural Migrants in Tripoli, Libya.” Ph.D. Diss., Case Western Reserve.Google Scholar
Farah, T. and Al-Salem, F.. 1977. “An Exploratory Analysis of Correlates of Political Violence in Thirteen Arab States.” Journal of the Social Sciences, 4, 2136.Google Scholar
Feierabend, I. and Feierabend, R.. 1966. “Aggressive Behavior Within Polities, 1948–1962: A Cross-National Study.” Journal of Conflict Resolution, 10, 249271.Google Scholar
Feierabend, I. and Nesvold, B.. 1969. “Social Change and Political Violence: Cross-National Patterns,” in Violence in America: Historical and Comparative Perspectives, ed. by Graham, H. and Gurr, T.. New York: Bantam.Google Scholar
Feierabend, I. and Nesvold, B.. 1973. “The Comparative Study of Revolution and Violence.” Comparative Politics, 5, 393424.Google Scholar
Fernea, R. 1963/4. “Conflict in Irrigation.” Comparative Studies in Society and History, 6, 7683.Google Scholar
Fernea, R. 1969. “Land Reform and Ecology in Post-Revolutionary Iraq.” Economic Development and Cultural Change, 17, 356381.Google Scholar
First, R. 1974. Libya: The Elusive Revolution. New York: Penguin.Google Scholar
Fisher, S.N., ed. 1963. The Military in the Middle East. Columbus: Ohio State Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Flanigan, W. and Fogelman, E.. 1970. “Patterns of Political Violence in Comparative Historical Perspective.” Comparative Politics, 3, 120.Google Scholar
Gadalla, S. 1962. Land Reform in Relation to Social Development: Egypt. Columbia: Univ. of Missouri Press.Google Scholar
Garzouzi, E. 1963. “Land Reform in Syria.” Middle East Journal, 17, 8390.Google Scholar
Gendzier, I. 1973. Frantz Fanon: A Critical Study. New York: Pantheon.Google Scholar
Gulick, J. 1967. “Baghdad: Portrait of a Society in Physical and Cultural Change.” Journal of the American Institute of Planners, 33, 246255.Google Scholar
Gurr, T. 1969. “A Comparative Study of Civil Strife,” in Violence in America: Historical and Comparative Perspectives, ed. by Graham, H. and Gurr, T.. New York: Bantam.Google Scholar
Gurr, T. 1970. Why Men Rebel. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Gurr, T. and Ruttenberg, C.. 1967. Conditions of Civil Violence: First Tests of a Causal Model. Princeton Univ., Center for International Studies.Google Scholar
Haddad, G. 1965. Revolutions and Military Rule in the Middle East: The Northern Tier. New York: Speller.Google Scholar
Hairi, Z. 1959. “The Agrarian Reform Law in the Republic of Iraq. “World Marxist Review, 2, 5560.Google Scholar
Halpern, M. 1963. The Politics of Social Change in the Middle East and North Africa. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Hairk, I. 1974. The Political Mobilization of Peasants: A Study of an Egyptian Community. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Harris, C. 1956. “Egyptian Nationalism and the Revolution.” World Affairs Quarterly, 26, 358377.Google Scholar
Harris, G. 1965. “The Role of the Military in Turkish Politics.” Middle East Journal, 19, 5461.Google Scholar
Harrison, R. 1967. “Migrants in the City of Tripoli, Libya1.” The Geographical Review, 57, 397423.Google Scholar
Hauser, P.The Social, Economic and Technological Problems of Rapic Urbanization,” in Industrialization and Society, ed. by Hoselitz, B. and Moore, W.. Paris: Mouton.Google Scholar
Hemmasi, M. 1974. Migration in Iran: A Quantitative Approach. Shiraz: Pahlavi Univ.Google Scholar
Hibbs, D. Jr. 1973. Mass Political Violence: A Cross-National Causal Analysis. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Hirsch, E. 1970. Poverty and Plenty on the Turkish Farm: A Study of Income Distribution in Turkish Agriculture. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Hooglund, E. 1973. “The Khwushnishin Population of Iran.” Iranian Studies. 6, 229245.Google Scholar
Hoselitz, B. 1960. Sociological Aspects of Economic Growth. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press.Google Scholar
Hudson, M.Conditions of Political Violence and Instability: A Preliminary Test of Three Hypotheses.” Sage Professional Papers in Comparative Politics, 1, 243294.Google Scholar
Hudson, M. 1971. “Political Protest and Power Transfers in CrisisPeriods: Regional, Structural, and Environmental Comparisons.” Comparative Political Studies, 4, 259294.Google Scholar
Hurewitz, J.C. 1969. Middle East Politics: The Military Dimension. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
Hussein, M. 1973. Class Conflict in Egypt: 1945–1970. New York: Monthly Review.Google Scholar
Iran, Plan and Budget Organization. 1977. “Report of Research on Migrants in Tehran and Tabriz.”Google Scholar
Johnson, J., ed. 1962. The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Karpat, K. 1970. “The Military and Politics in Turkey, 1960–64; A Socio-Cultural Analysis of a Revolution.” American Historical Review, 75, 1654-1683.Google Scholar
Karpat, K. 1971. “The Changing Nature of Revolutions in the Middle East.” Paper presented at 5th MESA Annual Meeting, Denver, Colorado.Google Scholar
Karpat, K. 1976. The Gecekondu: Rural Migration and Urbanization. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Kazemi, F. 1973. “Social Mobilization and Domestic Violence in Iran: 1946–1968.” Ph.D. Diss., Univ. of Michigan.Google Scholar
Karpat, K. 1975. “Economic Indicators and Political Violence in Iran: 1946–1968.” Iranian Studies, 8, 7086.Google Scholar
Karpat, K. 1977. “The Military and Politics in Iran: The Uneasy Symbiosis.” Middle Eastern Studies, forthcoming.Google Scholar
Karpat, K. and Abrahamian, E.. 1977. “The Non-Revolutionary Peasantry of Modern Iran,” in State and Society in Modern Iran, ed. by Banani, Amin. Los Angeles: Univ. of California, forthcoming.Google Scholar
Khadduri, M. 1953. “The Role of the Military in Middle East Politics.” American Political Science Review, 46, 511524.Google Scholar
Khadduri, M. 1969. Republican Iraq. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Khoury, E. 1970. The Patterns of Mass Movements in Arab Revolutionary-Progressive States. The Hague: Mouton.Google Scholar
Kirkham, J.Levy, S., and Crotty, W.. 1970. Assassination and Political Violence. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Klat, P. 1958. “The Origins of Land Ownership in Syria.” Middle East Economic Papers, 5166.Google Scholar
Kornhauser, W. 1959. The Politics of Mass Society. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Lambton, A.K.S. 1953. Landlord and Peasant in Persia: A Study of Land Tenure and Land Revenue Administration. London : Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Lambton, A.K.S. 1969. The Persian Land Reform: 1962–1966. London: Clarendon Press of Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Lapidus, I., ed. 1969. Middle Eastern Cities: A Symposium on Ancient. Islamic, and Contemporary Middle Eastern Urbanism.Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.Google Scholar
Leiden, C. and Schmitt, K.. 1968. The Politics of Violence: Revolution in the Modern World. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Levine, N. 1973. “Old Culture-New Culture: A Study of Migrants in Ankara, Turkey.” Social Forces, 51, 355368.Google Scholar
Marx, E. 1967. Bedouin of the Negev. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
MayfieId, J. 1971. Rural Politics in Nasser’s Egypt: A Quest for Legitimacy. Austin: Univ. of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Migdal, J. 1974. Peasants, Politics, and Revolution. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Mitchell, R. 1969. The Society of Muslim Brothers. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Moore, B. 1966. Social Origins of Democracy and Dictatorship: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World. Boston: Beacon.Google Scholar
Nader, L. 1965. “Communication between Village and City in the Middle East.” Human Organization. 24, 1824.Google Scholar
Nardin, T. 1971. “Violence and the State: A Critique of Empirical Political Theory.” Sage Professional Papers in Comparative Politics. 2, 572.Google Scholar
Nelson, J. 1969. Migrants, Urban Poverty, and Instability in Developing Nations. Harvard Univ., Center for International Affairs.Google Scholar
Nelson, J. 1970. “The Urban Poor: Disruption or Political Integration in Third World Cities.” World Politics, 22, 393414.Google Scholar
Nordlinger, E. 1970. “Soldiers in Mufti: The Impact of Military Rule Upon Economic and Social Change in the Non-Western States.” American Political Science Review, 64, 1131-1148.Google Scholar
O’Ballance, E. 1973. The Kurdish Revolt, 1961–70. London:Faber.Google Scholar
özbüdün, E. 1966. The Role of the Military in Recent Turkish Politics. Harvard Univ., Center for International Affairs.Google Scholar
Paige, J. 1975. Agrarian Revolution. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Palmer, M. 1971. “Some Political Determinants of Economic Reform: Agrarian Reform in Irag.” Journal of Asian and African Studies, 6, 169178.Google Scholar
Parvin, M. 1968. “Military Expenditure in Iran: A Forgotten Question.” Iranian Studies. 1, 149154.Google Scholar
Parvin, M. 1973. “Economic Determinants of Political Unrest: An Econometric Approach.” Journal of Conflict Resolution, 17, 271296.Google Scholar
Perlmutter, A. 1969a. “From Obscurity to Rule: The Syrian Army and the Ba’th Party.” Western Political Quarterly. 22, 827845.Google Scholar
Perlmutter, A. 1969b. Military Politics in Israel. London: Cass.Google Scholar
Perlmutter, A. 1970. “The Arab Military Elite.” World Politics, 22, 269300.Google Scholar
Peterson, K. 1971. “Villagers in Cairo: Hypotheses versus Data.” American Journal of Sociology, 77, 560573.Google Scholar
Phillips, D. 1959. “Rural to Urban Migration in Irag.” Economic Development and Cultural Change, 7, 405421.Google Scholar
Pye, L. 1969. “The Political Implications of Urbanization and the Development Process,” in The City in Newly Developing Countries : Readings on Urbanism and Urbanization, ed. by Breese, G.. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Quandt, W. 1969. Revolution and Political Leadership: Algeria, 1954–1968. Cambridge: MJT Press.Google Scholar
Rabinovitch, I. 1972. Syria Under the Ba’th. New York: Halsted.Google Scholar
Rosenfeld, H. 1968. “Change, Barriers to Change and Contradictions in the Arab Village Family.” American Anthropologist, 70, 732752.Google Scholar
Rummel, R. 1965. “A Field Theory of Social Action with Application to Conflict Within Nations.” General Systems Yearbook, 10, 183211.Google Scholar
Rustow, D. 1959. “The Army and the Founding of the Turkish Republic.” World Politics, 11, 513552.Google Scholar
Saab, G. 1967. The Egyptian Agrarian Reform, 1952–1962. London: Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Salibi, K. 1976. Crossroads to Civil War: Lebanon 1958–1976. Delmar, N.Y.: Caravan.Google Scholar
Saran, N. 1974. “Squatter Settlement (Gecekondu) Problems in Istanbul,” in Turkey: Geographic and Social Perspectives, ed. by Benedict, P. et al. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Sewell, G. 1966. “Squatter Settlements in Turkey: Analysis of a Social, Political and Economic Problem.” Ph.D. Diss., M.I.T.Google Scholar
Smock, D. and Smock, A.. 1975. Politics of Pluralism: A Comparative Study of Lebanon and Ghana. New York: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Snaiberg, A. 1970. “Rural-Urban Residence and Modernism: A Study in Ankara Province, Turkey.” Demography, 7, 7185.Google Scholar
Stepan, A. 1966. “Political Development Theory: The Latin American Experience.” Journal of International Affairs. 20, 223234.Google Scholar
Suleiman, M. 1972. “Crisis and Revolution in Lebanon.” Middle East Journal. 26, 1124.Google Scholar
Suzuki, P. 1964. “Encounters with Istanbul: Urban Peasants and Rural Peasants.” International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 5, 208216.Google Scholar
Sweet, L. ed., 1970. Peoples and Cultures of the Middle East. Vols. I and II. New York: Natural History Press.Google Scholar
Tanter, R., and Midlarsky, M.. 1967. “A Theory of Revolution.” Journal of Conflict Resolution, 11, 264280.Google Scholar
Thompson, W. 1973. “Toward an Explanation of the Arab Military Coup.” Paper presented at 7th MESA Annual Meeting, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.Google Scholar
Thompson, W. 1976. “Organizational Cohesion and Military Coup Outcomes.” Comparative Political Studies, 9, 255276.Google Scholar
Tilly, C. and Rule, J.. 1965. Measuring Political Upheaval. Princeton Univ., Center for International Studies.Google Scholar
Torrey, G. 1964. Syrian Politics and the Military: 1945–1958. Columbus: Ohio State Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Tuma, E. 1970. “Agrarian Reform and Urbanization in the Middle East.” Middle East Journal, 24, 163177.Google Scholar
Vatikiotis, P.J. 1961. The Egyptian Army in Politics. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Vatikiotis, P.J. 1967. Politics and Military in Jordan. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
Vatikiotis, P.J. ed. 1972. Revolution in the Middle East. London: Allen and Unwin.Google Scholar
Vieille, P. 1975. La Féodalité et l‘Etat en Iran. Paris.Google Scholar
Warriner, D. 1953. “Land Reform in Egypt and its Repercussions.” International Affairs, 39, 110.Google Scholar
Warriner, D. 1962. Land Reform and Development in the Middle East: A Study of Egypt. Syria and Iraq. London: Oxford Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Warriner, D. 1970. “Employment and Income Aspects of Recent Agrarian Reforms in the Middle East.” International Labour Review,101, 605626.Google Scholar
Waterbury, J. 1970. The Commander of the Faithful: The Moroccan Political Elite. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Weiker, W. 1963. The Turkish Revolution: 1960–1961. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute.Google Scholar
Weiner, M. 1961. “Violence and Politics in Calcutta.” Journal of Asian Studies. 20, 275281.Google Scholar
Weiner, M. 1967. “Urbanization and Political Protest.” Civilisations, 17, 4450.Google Scholar
Wheelock, K. 1960. Nasser’s New Egypt. New York: Praeger.Google Scholar
Wolf, E. 1969. Peasant Wars of the Twentieth Century. New York: Harper and Row.Google Scholar
Wolf, E., ed. 1975. “Peasants and Political Mobilization,” Special Issue of Comparative Studies in Society and History, 18.Google Scholar
Yalman, N. 1971. “On Land Disputes in Eastern Turkey,” in Islam and its Cultural Divergence: Studies in Honor of Gustav E. Von Grunebaum, ed. by Tikku, G.. Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Zagoria, D. 1971. “Ecology of Peasant Communism in India.” American Political Science Review, 65, 144160.Google Scholar
Zagoria, D., ed. 1976. “Peasants and Revolution,” Special Issue of Comparative Politics, 8.Google Scholar
Zartman, I.W. 1964. Morocco; Problems of New Power. New York: Atherton.Google Scholar
Zartman, I.W. 1970. “The Algerian Army in Politics,” in Soldier and State in Africa, ed. by Welch, C.. Evanston: Northwestern Univ. Press.Google Scholar
Zartman, I.W. 1976. “Political Science,” in The Study of the Middle East: Research and Scholarship in the Humanities and Social Sciences, ed. by Binder, L.. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Zartman, I.W., Paul, J. and Entelis, J.. 1971. “An Economic Indicator of Socio-Political Unrest.” International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 2, 293310.Google Scholar