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⁴ Buzan et al., ‘Security’, p. 26 (‘securitization’ as an illocutionary act); pp. 5, 26, 30, 37 (‘process’). As Stritzel put it, ‘Wæver and Buzan continuously fluctuate between the terms process and speech act/utterance as if both were synonymous’ – see Stritzel, ‘Towards a Theory of Securitization’, p. 364, emphasis in original.

⁵ Buzan et al., Ibid., p. 25 (‘argument’); p. 204 (‘then’); pp. 27, 37 (‘significant audience’); pp. 25, 27, 31, 34, 41 (‘accept’); p. 41 (‘convinced’). In the words of McDonald, Buzan et al. ‘began to place increased emphasis on the role of constituencies or audiences in ‘backing up’ speech acts. . . . Here, speech acts were defined as ‘securitizing moves’ that became securitizations through audience consent’ – see ‘Securitization and the Construction of Security’, p. 566.

⁶ Austin, How To Do Things With Words, p. 99, emphasis in original; p. 109, emphasis in original; p. 101, emphasis added.

⁷ As Stritzel pointed out, Wæver continued to champion theorising securitisation as a linguistic ‘event’ – see Stritzel, ‘Towards a Theory of Securitization’, p. 360.

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¹⁸ Stritzel, ‘Towards a Theory of Securitisation’, p. 376.

¹⁹ Buzan et al., ‘Security’, p. 41, emphasis added.

²⁰ Ibid.; Buzan, Barry and Hansen, Lene, The Evolution of International Security Studies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), p. 34CrossRefGoogle Scholar (‘convinced’); Balzacq, ‘Three Faces of Securitisation’, pp. 172, 184 (‘persuaded’).

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³⁵ Austin later qualified this generalisation somewhat, concluding that ‘Illocutionary acts are [always] conventional acts, perlocutionary acts are not conventional’ – How To Do Things With Words, p. 121, emphasis in original.

³⁶ Ibid., p. 16.

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³⁹ Ibid., p. 17.

⁴⁰ Ibid., p. 18.

⁴¹ Ibid., p. 20.

⁴² Culler, On Deconstruction, p. 126

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⁴⁸ Ibid. The Oxford Dictionary is available at: {http://oxforddictionaries.com/} accessed 15 September 2012, emphases added.

⁴⁹ Buzan et. al., ‘Security’, pp. 26, 41, emphasis added. See also Buzan and Hansen, Evolution of International Security Studies, p. 34.

⁵⁰ Oxford Dictionary Online.

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⁵⁸ Butler, Excitable Speech, p. 25.

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⁷⁵ Ibid., p. 63.

⁷⁶ Ibid., p. 69. In this vein, Wedeen, Lisa, in her Peripheral Visions: Publics, Power, and performance in Yemen (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), pp. 87–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar, found that ‘Images of national unity do not do away with the divisions that generate lively worlds of debate in Yemen. Both the elections and the [North-South] unity celebrations provided discursive contexts within which alternative forms of group identification and politics could take place.’

⁷⁷ Kertzer, Ritual, pp. 64–5.

⁷⁸ Ibid., p. 70.

⁷⁹ Although space constraints prohibit a detailed discussion, these interweaving roles of belief and materiality raise the issue of affect in securitisation. One route worth exploring here would be how affects play a role in audience acceptance of securitisation discourses. Such work could follow recent research demonstrating the role of emotions in rebuilding communities after crises. See Hutchison, Emma and Bleiker, Roland, ‘Emotional Reconciliation: Reconstituting Identity and Community after Trauma’, European Journal of Social Theory, 11:3 (2008), pp. 385–403CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On emotions and beliefs, see Jonathan, Mercer, ‘Emotional Beliefs’, International Organization, 64:1 (2000), pp. 1–31Google Scholar.

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⁸⁴ Ibid., p. 76.

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⁹⁰ Quoted in Barton Gellman and Walter Pincus, ‘Depiction of Threat Outgrew Supporting Evidence’, Washington Post (10 August 2003).

⁹¹ Ron Suskind, ‘Faith, Certainty and the Presidency of George W. Bush’, New York Times (17 October 2004). Suskind actually attributed this remark to an unnamed senior official who was ‘widely known’ to have been Rove – see Danner, Mark, Stripping Bare the Body: Politics, Violence, War (New York: Nation Books, 2009), p. 555Google Scholar.

⁹² Isikoff, Michael and Corn, David, Hubris: The Inside Story of Spin, Scandal, and the Selling of the Iraq War (New York: Crown Publishers, 2006), p. 29Google Scholar. See also Rampton, Sheldon and Stauber, John, Weapons of Mass Deception: The Uses of Propaganda in Bush's war on Iraq (London: Robinson Press, 2003)Google Scholar.

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⁹⁴ Woodward, Plan of Attack, pp. 201–2.

⁹⁵ ‘President Rallies Troops at Fort Hood’ (3 January 2003), available at: {http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2003/01/20030103.html} accessed 31 July 2012.

⁹⁶ ‘Full Text of Colin Powell's Speech’, The Guardian (5 February 2003). While we focus here on the immediate run-up to the Iraq war, we concur with Burgos, Russell A. (‘Origins of Regime Change: ‘Ideapolitik’ and the Long Road to Baghdad: 1993–2000’, Security Studies, 17:2 (2008), p. 221)CrossRefGoogle Scholar that the Bush administration's ‘rhetoric was firmly embedded in a pre-existing foreign policy consensus defining Saddam Hussein as the “problem” and his overthrow the “solution”’. We similarly recognise that ‘WMD’ can be seen as part of a broader ‘discourse of danger’ that produced collective understandings of ‘us’ and ‘them’ after 11 September 2001. See Campbell, David, Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998)Google Scholar.

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⁹⁸ Quoted in Woodward, Plan of Attack, p. 170.

⁹⁹ Quoted in Ibid., p. 203.

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¹⁰³ Barber, Fear's Empire, p. 29; American Dialect Society, ‘“Occupy” 2011 Word of the Year’, available at: {http://www.americandialect.org/occupy-is-the-2011-word-of-the-year} accessed 30 July 2012.

¹⁰⁴ American Dialect Society, ‘Occupy’.

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¹⁰⁷ Ibid.

¹⁰⁸ Jonathan Alter, ‘Why This Is Not a Drill’, Newsweek (17 November 1997).

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¹¹⁷ Kertzer, Ritual, p. 76.

¹¹⁸ Kinsley, ‘Low Opinion’.

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¹³⁰ A recapitulation of the episode is available at: {www.avclub.com/review/the-sopranos-all-happy-families-63274} accessed 20 December 2013.

¹³¹ ‘Simpsons’ Halloween ‘“Horror” Could Hit GOP’, available at: {www.abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/story?id=2600380&page=1} accessed 20 December 2013.

¹³² Butler, ‘Sovereign Performatives’, p. 375.