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¹⁶ Saward, The Representative Claim.

¹⁷ Peruzzotti, ‘Democratic credentials or bridging mechanisms?’

¹⁸ Ibid., p. 163.

¹⁹ The notion of performativity goes back to classical speech-act theory and relates to the productive force of speaking, that is, the effects that a specific linguistic representation of the world has on individuals’ perception of social reality and the ways in which they react towards it. See Austin, John L., How To Do Things with Words (Oxford: Clarendon, 1975)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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²² Barnett, Michael N. and Duvall, Raymond, Power in Global Governance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), p. 3Google Scholar. Much constructivist theorising on power in international politics emphasises the relevance of incorporating institutional arrangements into an analysis of power, following suit of sociological institutionalism’s mission to fully grasp how institutions enable and constrain the behaviour of individuals and how actors perpetuate or transform institutions. Bourdieu’s theory on social fields which define speaking positions for actors operating within this field has been a source of inspiration for those IR scholars who have sought to contextualise the play of power in actors’ communicative exchange – and to show that material and symbolic power cannot be dissociated from each other. Institutions have thus emerged as a core ‘source’ of power, conferring authority to specific authors simply by means of their position within institutional arrangements; see Barnett and Duvall, Power in Global Governance, p. 16.

²³ Ibid., p. 12

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³¹ Saward, The Representative Claim, p. 49.

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³⁹ I am grateful to one of the two anonymous reviewers for this article who highlighted this point.

⁴⁰ Holzscheiter, Children’s Rights in International Politics.

⁴¹ General Assembly resolution 44/25 of 20 November 1989, ‘United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child’, entered into force 2 September 1990, Article 1.

⁴² Gerison Lansdown, Evolving Capacities and Participation (Victoria/British Columbia: Institute for Child Rights and Development, 2003); Roche, Jeremy, ‘Children: Rights, participation and citizenship’, Childhood, 6:4 (1999), pp. 475–494CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴³ Doek, Jaap E., ‘Foreword’, in Invernizzi and Williams (eds), Children and Citizenship (London et al.: SAGE Publishers, 2008), pp. xii–xviGoogle Scholar, p. xv.

⁴⁴ Invernizzi, Antonella and Williams, Jane, Children and Citizenship (London et al.: SAGE Publishers, 2008)Google Scholar.

⁴⁵ Among the most well-known global CSOs working in the field of child protection are: the Save the Children Alliance, CARE, PLAN, World Vision, the Terre des Hommes International Federation, and the Bernard van Leer Foundation. In child labour, Anti-Slavery International is commonly considered to be the most influential non-state actor while the Global March Against Child Labour is the largest network of organisations in this field.

⁴⁶ Dahlén, Marianne, The Negotiable Child: The ILO Child Labour Campaign 1919-1973 (PhD thesis, Department of Law, Uppsala University, 2007)Google Scholar; Fyfe, Alexander, The Worldwide Movement Against Child Labour: Progress and Future Directions (Geneva: International Labour Office, 2007)Google Scholar.

⁴⁷ Bourdillon, Michael, Levison, Deborah, Myers, William E., White, and Ben, Rights and Wrongs of Children’s Work (New Brunswick/New Jersey/London: Rutgers University Press, 2010), p. 40Google Scholar.

⁴⁸ Already by 1921, the ILO had adopted six entire Conventions concerned with working children.

⁴⁹ Today the NGO is called Anti-Slavery International.

⁵⁰ Myrstad, Geir, ‘What can trade unions do to combat child labour?’, Childhood, 6:1 (1999), pp. 75–88CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵¹ Dahlén, The Negotiable Child.

⁵² Ibid., p. 112.

⁵³ See, for example, Myers, William E., ‘The right rights? Child labor in a globalizing world’, in Jude L. Fernando (ed.), Globalization and Children’s Rights (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2001), pp. 38–55Google Scholar; Pierik, R. and Houwerzijl, M., ‘Western policies on child labor abroad’, Ethics and International Affairs, 20:2 (2006), pp. 193–218CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Smolin, David M., ‘Conflict and ideology in the international campaign against child labour’, Hofstra Labor & Employment Law Journal, 16 (1999), pp. 383–450Google Scholar; Smolin, David M., ‘Strategic choices in the international campaign against child labor’, Human Rights Quarterly, 22 (2000), pp. 942–987CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hanson, Karl and Vandaele, Arne, ‘Working children and international labour law: a critical analysis’, The International Journal of Children’s Rights, 11:1 (2003), pp. 73–146CrossRefGoogle Scholar; White, B., ‘Children, work and child labour: Changing responses to the employment of children’, Development and Change, 25:4 (1994), pp. 849–878CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁴ Boyden, Jo and Levison, Deborah, Children as Economic and Social Actors in the Development Process, Expert Group on Developmental Issues (Stockholm: Ministry for Foreign Affairs, 2000)Google Scholar; Ennew, Judith, ‘The history of children’s rights: Whose story?’, Cultural Survival, 24:2 (2000), pp. 44–48Google Scholar; Myers, The Right Rights?; Nieuwenhuys, Olga, ‘Global childhood and the politics of contempt’, Alternatives, 23:3 (1998), pp. 267–289CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Woodhead, Martin, Is There a Place for Work in Child Development? (Stockholm: Save the Children Sweden, 1999)Google Scholar; Dahlén, The Negotiable Child.

⁵⁵ Boyden and Levison, Children as Economic and Social Actors.

⁵⁶ ILO, International Program on the Elimination of Child Labour, available at: {http://www.ilo.org/ipec/lang--en/index.htm} accessed 7 May 2015.

⁵⁷ The Programme, however, does not exist any longer; see {http://web.worldbank.org/archive/website01048/WEB/0__MENUP.HTM} accessed 7 May 2015.

⁵⁸ United Nations Global Compact, ‘The Ten Principles’, available at: {www.unglobalcompact.org/AboutTheGC/TheTenPrinciples/index.html} accessed 7 May 2015.

⁵⁹ Office, International Labour, Union Policies and Action Plans to Combat Child Labour (Geneva: ILO, 2000)Google Scholar.

⁶⁰ Dahlén, The Negotiable Child, p. 185.

⁶¹ International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, ‘Campaigning Against Child Labour’, available at: {http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/netzquelle/01316.pdf} accessed 7 May 2015.

⁶² Fyfe, The Worldwide Movement Against Child Labour, p. 26, fn. 55.

⁶³ Fyfe, The Worldwide Movement Against Child Labour.

⁶⁴ The institutionalisation of cooperative relationships between ILO and these CSOs is evidenced by the fact that Education International and the Global March are partners in the Global Task Force on Child Labour and Education, hosted by the ILO, available at: {http://www.ilo.org/ipec/Action/Education/GlobalTaskForceonchildlaboburandeducation/lang--en/index.htm} accessed 7 May 2015.

⁶⁵ See ILO/Dutch Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment, The Hague Global Child Labour Conference 2010, The Hague Conference Report, p. 7 (The Hague, 2010), available at: {http://www.ilo.org/ipecinfo/product/viewProduct.do?productId=14575} accessed 7 May 2015.

⁶⁶ Ennew, ‘The history of children’s rights’, p. 48.

⁶⁷ Boyden and Levison, Children as Economic and Social Actors, p. 6; Liebel, Manfred, ‘Working children as social subjects: the contribution of working children’s organizations to social transformations’, Childhood, 10:3 (2003), pp. 265–285CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶⁸ Fyfe, The Worldwide Movement Against Child Labour, p. 48.

⁶⁹ The eschewed politics of child participation of the Global March have also been studied at the national/local level. See Susan Levine’s article on the Global March campaign in South Africa in the late 1990s; Levine, Susan, ‘Bittersweet Harvest: Children, work and the global march against child labour in the post-apartheid state’, Critique of Anthropology, 19:2 (1999), pp. 139–155CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷⁰ Fyfe, The Worldwide Movement Against Child Labour, p. 46.

⁷¹ Bourdillon et al., Rights and Wrongs of Children’s Work, pp. 143ff.

⁷² Following their emergence in Latin America, most working children’s organisations have adopted the acronym NATs (niños y niñas trabajadores). Today, the largest child worker organisations are the African Movement for Working Children and Youth/Mouvement Africain d’Enfants et Jeunes Travailleurs; the Latin America Movement of Working Children and Adolescents (MOLACNATS); the Working Children’s Movement in South and Central Asia; and EUROPANATS.

⁷³ Miljeteig, Per, Creating Partnerships with Working Children and Youth (Washington: The Social Protection Unit. Human Development Network. The World Bank, 2000)Google Scholar.

⁷⁴ See the statement by MOLACNATs in the context of the 2010 Global Child Labour Conference Conference organised by ILO in the Hague, available at: {www.cetri.be/spip.php?article1609} accessed 7 May 2015.

⁷⁵ Hungerland, Beatrice, Liebel, Manfred, Milne, Bryan, Wihstutz, and Anne, Working to be Someone: Child Focused Research and Practice with Working Children (London/Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Pub, 2007)Google Scholar.

⁷⁶ Dutch Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment, ‘Combating the Most Intolerable Forms of Child Labour: A Global Challenge, Report of the Amsterdam Child Labour Conference (February 1997), available at: {http://ilo-mirror.library.cornell.edu/public/english/comp/child/conf/amsterdam/report.pdf} accessed 7 May 2015.

⁷⁷ Miljeteig, Creating Partnerships with Working Children and Youth, pp. 18–19.

⁷⁸ The 2010 meeting of EUROPANATS took place alongside the official 2010 ILO Conference in The Hague, staged as an alternative meeting to express ‘deep disagreement’ with ILO’s child labour policies, available at: {www.italianats.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=216%3Aprogramma-incontro&catid=35%3Aamericalatina&Itemid=69&lang=en} accessed 7 May 2015.

⁷⁹ See ‘Child Labour Dialogues’, available at: {http://www.childlabourdialogues.org/} accessed 7 May 2015.

⁸⁰ See speech by Antje Weber, VENRO, during the Brasilia Conference, available at: {http://blog.kindernothilfe.org/de/archives/3368} accessed 7 May 2015.

⁸¹ Hindman, Hugh D., The World of Child Labor: An Historical and Regional Survey (New York: ME Sharpe, 2011)Google Scholar.

⁸² Global March Regional Coordinators, ‘From Exploitation to Eduation’, Global March Position on Child Labour and Education (2004), available at: {http://www.globalmarch.org/images/GM-Position-Paper-on-Child-Labour-and-Education.pdf} accessed 7 May 2015.

⁸³ This focus arguably distorts the image of the working child, considering that the majority of children who work full time do so within a family context. In 2011, ILO reported that worldwide, 60 per cent of all child labourers were working in agriculture, and of these the ‘majority of working children are unpaid family members’, available at: {http://www.ilo.org/ipec/areas/Agriculture/lang--en/index.htm} accessed 7 May 2015.

⁸⁴ CARE on ‘Children and Poverty Campaign’, available at: {www.careusa.org/campaigns/childrenpoverty/index.asp} accessed 7 May 2015. For a similar statement see: SOS Children’s Villages, ‘How does child labour undermine literacy?’, available at: {http://www.soschildrensvillages.org.uk/about-our-charity/news/international-literacy-day/how-does-child-labour-undermine-literacy} accessed 7 May 2015.

⁸⁵ Global March on ‘Child Labour’, available at: {www.globalmarch.org/issues/child-labour} accessed 7 May 2015. For a similar quote, see terre des hommes on ‘child labour’, available at: {www.tdh.ch/en/topics/protection/trafficking-abuse-and-exploitation}accessed 7 May 2015.

⁸⁶ Woodhead, Is There a Place for Work in Child Development?

⁸⁷ Bourdillon et al., Rights and Wrongs of Children’s Work, p. 11.

⁸⁸ A word search in Google, in fact, produced 11,350,000 hits for ‘child labour’ and ‘child labor’, while ‘children’s work’, ‘child work’, and ‘working children’ together accounted for only 1,263,000 hits.

⁸⁹ See speech by ILO Director General Guy Ryder at the 2013 Global Conference on Child Labour in Brasilia, available at: {http://www.ilo.org/ipec/Campaignandadvocacy/BrasiliaConference/lang--en/index.htm} accessed 7 May 2015.

⁹⁰ Bourdillon et al., Rights and Wrongs of Children’s Work, p. 9.

⁹¹ Dahlén, The Negotiable Child, p. 185.

⁹² See, for example, Kathmandu Declaration, ‘Convergence of working children from South and Central Asia’ (August 2005), available at: {http://www.italianats.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=49%3Akathmandu&catid=40%3Adichiarazioniufficiali&Itemid=62&lang=en} accessed 7 May 2015; Final Declaration of the 2^nd World Meeting of Working Children and Adolescents, Berlin (April/May 2004), available at: {http://www.italianats.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=48%3Aberlino&catid=40%3Adichiarazioniufficiali&Itemid=62&lang=en} accessed 7 May 2015.

⁹³ Miljeteig, Creating Partnerships with Working Children and Youth.

⁹⁴ Hertel, Unexpected Power, ch. 3.

⁹⁵ Fyfe, The Worldwide Movement Against Child Labour.

⁹⁶ Miljeteig, Creating Partnerships with Working Children and Youth, p. 23.

⁹⁷ Declaration of MOLACNATS on the occasion of the Global Child Labour Conference in Den Hague (May 2010), p. 3, available at: {http://www.pronats.de/assets/Uploads/molacnats-erklaerung-deutsch.pdf} accessed 7 May 2015.

⁹⁸ IREWOC, Studying Child Labour: Policy Implications of Child-Centered Research (Amsterdam: IREWOC, 2005)Google Scholar.

⁹⁹ See, for example, the information provided by MOLACNATS, available at: {http://molacnats.org/index.php/movimientos/argentina/263-presentacion-del-manthoc} accessed 23 April 2015; or the ‘protagonismo infantil’ promoted by Infejant, an educational institution for child workers in Latin America and the Caribbean, available at: {http://www.ifejant.org.pe/} accessed 23 April 2015.

¹⁰⁰ General Assembly resolution 44/25 of 20 November 1989, ‘United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child’, entered into force 2 September 1990, Art. 12.

¹⁰¹ Holzscheiter, Anna, ‘Power of discourse or discourse of the powerful? The reconstruction of global childhood norms in the drafting of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child’, Journal of Language and Politics, 10:1 (2011), pp. 1–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁰² The twenty-fifth anniversary of the UNCRC offered an opportunity to observe the degree to which child-focused CSOs had opened up to the principles enshrined in the Convention. Plan International, available at: {https://plan-international.org/where-we-work/geneva/news/commemorating-25-years-of-the-convention-on-the-rights-of-the-child}; Terre des homes on the twenty-fifth anniversary of the UNCRC, available at: {http://www.terredeshommes.org/universal-childrens-day-25th-anniversary-convention/} accessed 7 May 2015. CARE as one of the leading charities working in child protection, however, is occasionally making reference to the UNCRC but does not include a broad children’s rights agenda in its advocacy activities.

¹⁰³ Peruzzotti, ‘Democratic credentials or bridging mechanisms?’, p. 163.

¹⁰⁴ Lansdown, Gerison, Benchmarking Progress in Adopting and Implementing Child Rights Programming (London: International Save the Children Alliance, 2005), p. 62Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁵ In fact, the 2012 UNICEF report card on adolescents (aged 10–19 years) argues that the international community knows less about adolescents ‘than other segments of the child population: too little about their situations, habits, hopes and dreams’; see UNICEF, Progress for Children: A Report Card on Adolescents (New York: UNICEF, 2012), p. 3Google Scholar. Interestingly, however, the 56-page report card contains only a small passage on working adolescents, which talks solely about exploitative labour, avoiding picturing adolescents as, potentially, economic actors earning an independent living.

¹⁰⁶ On the child as an economic actor see Boyden and Levison, Children as Economic and Social Actors; Levison, Deborah, ‘Children as economic agents’, Feminist Economics, 6:1 (2000), pp. 125–134CrossRefGoogle Scholar.